We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like Economic Growth even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like Economic Growth in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
ECONOMIC GROWTH
EXAMINE AND ACCOUNT FOR AUSTRALIA’S PRESENT GROWTH RATE
Australia’s present growth rate is one of the highest in the world; in fact its average annual growth rate is higher than the average growth rate of the world.
Economic growth is when an economy produces more goods and services in a given year than in the previous year. But to find real economic growth (increase in real GDP), the effect of inflation must be taken out of account.
In the June quarter of 00 Australia’s economy grew by a minute 0.1%, the lowest since the December quarter of 000. Over the year the economy grew by %.
As one can see from the above graph, the rate of economic growth has gradually been slowing down after a sharp increase in the year 001.
As you can see on the table to the right (extracted from the RBA’s Statement on Monetary Policy, 10/11/0, page 1), the components of the Australian economy grew very quickly for the year to June quarter of 00, but the decrease in Net Exports resulted in a lower growth of %. The main reasons for why Net Exports fell so sharply are because
• Farm GDP has had negative growth of -.1%. This has resulted in less agricultural exports.
• A weak global economy has resulted in a decline in the purchasing of Australian exports.
• The increase in the Australian dollar has resulted in our exports becoming more expensive and so countries buy less.
So as one can see, the domestic economy grew very strongly but the negative growth in the net exports sector resulted in a much lower growth rate.
Mind that the sample papers like Economic Growth presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Showing posts with label example of a persuasive essay. Show all posts
Showing posts with label example of a persuasive essay. Show all posts
Sunday, September 2, 2012
Saturday, August 11, 2012
hellenistic art
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like hellenistic art even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like hellenistic art in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
Pride of Hellenistic Art
The Hellenistic period has no exact dates to limit its boundaries; rather it has a few hundred years where we can approximate its existence. The dates that are most closely associated with this period are approximately 00-100 BC. The end of the classical era leads to the new innovations and the use of new preferences that are now known in Hellenistic art. Examining some of the great works of Hellenistic sculptures, we will see some of the changes from classical era to that of Hellenistic.
In order to understand the shift from the classical era to the Hellenistic there are a few factors that must be known. This is a time where the political structure in Greece had shifted. It is now under a Divine Monarch as before it was a Democracy. This has all come about with the death of Alexander the Great. This new Monarch had come into effect at a time where there was great flourishing in the states of Greece. The military had much success in raiding neighboring cities. This aided in the acquirement of wealth. Greeks were always a people who were intense with there culture and love of art, so it could only be expected that this new age would lead to beautification of there cities, palaces, temples and homes with wonderful art.
The earliest piece we will be discussing is the, “Sarcophagus of the Mourning Women.” This piece cannot be dated solidly, but it is believed to have been created in the latter part of the fourth century BC. It stands about 70 inches high and 104 inches long. The details of this Sarcophagus that interest us are the women who are carved in the frieze. Around the whole exterior there are 18 women but we will concentrate on . The Sarcophagus belonged to a king whose name is unknown. The women who are sculpted are meant to represent his grieving wives and concubines of the late king.
One of the main changes from classical art to Hellenic is that from idealistic to realistic. These grieving women are perfect examples. Each woman appears similar in their clothing, hairstyles, proportions and facial features, but each one is still very different. The most noted differences would be their stance and facial expression. They all come across as mournful but each does so in their own way. The first woman has a hand on her breast and the other bent towards herself. Her right knee is buckled. Her head is slightly turned to the left and pointed downward. All of these details are used frequently throughout Hellenistic art. The human body bends and turns and so to make a realistic representation the statue must mimic the poses of the human body. We see the experimentation of the agility of the body more so in the other two statues. The second is leaning on something and her legs are crossed and stretched out towards the right. Her neck and head are twisted to the left. Her left arm embraces her body while the other is erected towards her face. The third one stands with her whole body twisted tot he right and her right hand holding her vale to her eyes as if an attempt to dry her tears. Her left hand is across her abdomen. All of these poses are creative but realistically showing the emotions that would be set forth in a time of grievance.
Faces prior to this period can be categorized as expressionless, which these women are definitely not. The facial expression on each speaks to us. We know by the detail in the first women’s forehead that sees in feeling pain. The second has a gaze stare into nothing. The third is meant to be crying, so we cannot even see her eyes. The mouths are emotionless.
As we begun to express the attention brought to realism in are we can go further into this idea by mention the piece, “The Old Drunken Women.” This piece not only is a prime example of realism in Hellenistic art, but also in the living of everyday life. Myron did this piece. What the title indicates is exactly what is offered by the sculpture. It uses the theme of “everyday life” which had become a favorite of the Hellenistic artists. The piece especially captures the vulgarity of an elderly woman who has had too much to drink. The new notion is that the youthful faces of idealized classic art have been replaced by those which are not meant to be attractive just realistic so if you were to see the subject in person. This sculpture probable resembles the women unlike the idealized sculptures such of those of Alexander the Great.
Her head is raised up and eyes widened. She clasps her jug of wine with a death grip. It appears that this wine is her dearest possession since her knees are spread almost appearing to be gripping the jug as well. The angle in which her head placed gives the implication that she is already in a drunken state. Her head is slung back as if her neck is incapable of holding it up. The detailed wrinkles of her face are unattractive yet it is hard not to stare at them. The jug that she has is detailed as well with flowers of some sort engraved. Her skin also is impressive. The artist did well by exposing the bones and letting her skin hang off of them. Her attire is well designed as well as the positioning of it. The way in which the linen is falling off of her shoulder goes further to prove that she is in a drunken state.
“Crouching Aphrodite,” was sculpted originally by a sculpture called Doidalas who was from Bythinia. It originally dates to about 50-40 BC. The original was probably done in bronze and had Eros holding a mirror up to her. We have the Roman copies to admire, which there are many around. The one that we will use can be found in museo Nazionale delle Terme in Rome. If we were unaware that this was a Roman copy we could figure it out when noticing the support piece located under the left thigh. This sculptor is also known as the Venus Od Vienna. Aphrodite was often depicted nude or partially clothed. She is usually associated with bathing probably since the myth of her birth has her being born from the ocean. This piece has been critiqued as Aphrodite getting ready to bathe as well. It has many Roman copies that included the one we are examining. In context to the Hellenistic world, this Aphrodite helps in promoting the Greeks concerns with sexuality. The Hellenistic world opens doors to the new and popular interest in sexuality. It had been acceptable for men to be depicted nude for centuries, but there is a new appreciation for the woman’s body in art. It is common to have nude, partial nude and bodies that have cloths that cling to the body rather than covering it. Aphrodite, being the goddess of love, both sexual and spiritual, is the perfect model for such a range.
We see Aphrodite crouched and twisted in such a particular way. Her body today would be described as plump although at the time in Greece it could only be assumed that it was the object of beauty for so many bodies in art were voluptuous and meaty so to say. Aphrodite also being the goddess of love could not bear a figure that was unattractive as well. Her lower back and buttocks seems out of proportion. They are rather large when compared to the head and limbs. Her breasts are full and prominent giving her youthfulness. My favorite aspect of this sculpture would have to be her stomach. She is not fat, but her stomach has wrinkles. The way in which her torso turns realistically depicts the actual way that her stomach would look. It is hard not to appreciate the artists tedious work when admiring the way her head is turn in the opposite direction of her torso.
Movement is also one of the greatest advances in Hellenistic art. We see movement in this era through many scenes of violence. These scenes are a great example of the movement that has metamorphoses in art, but the Greeks have also managed to utilize movement to show images of grace. In no way has it been better portrayed then in sculpture of “Victory of Samothrace”. It is almost unfair to try to describe its beauty on paper.
This sculpture is of the goddess Nike, whose name means victory. This particular statue of her was made approximately 180-160 BC. The battle in which it stood victoriously for is unknown as well as the artist who created it. We know that this does stand for a navel victory since it was made sit at the Prow of a ship. It is widely believed that an artist from Rhodes created her. This idea comes from the fact that the marble used to make her came from the island of Rhodes. She can be found at the Louvre in Paris. She is known to be, the most copied Greek statue and the most recognized.
Her body is extremely sexual. As was mentioned before it was common to draw sex appear by the way a femme wore her cloths. It appears as if a gust of wind is attacking her head on. The draperies smooth out to reveal the curves of her breast. It is hard to believe that she is not clothed in linen the way in which the marble crinkles. She originally is holding a wreath in one of her hands.
Weather it be a piece that mimics its model, creates seemingly impossible movements, captures the beauty of a nude body or be a product of everyday life, the growth in the world of art cannot be ignored. Hellenistic art was truly a genius age where sculptures and other forms of art would captivate the admirers.
Mind that the sample papers like hellenistic art presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Pride of Hellenistic Art
The Hellenistic period has no exact dates to limit its boundaries; rather it has a few hundred years where we can approximate its existence. The dates that are most closely associated with this period are approximately 00-100 BC. The end of the classical era leads to the new innovations and the use of new preferences that are now known in Hellenistic art. Examining some of the great works of Hellenistic sculptures, we will see some of the changes from classical era to that of Hellenistic.
In order to understand the shift from the classical era to the Hellenistic there are a few factors that must be known. This is a time where the political structure in Greece had shifted. It is now under a Divine Monarch as before it was a Democracy. This has all come about with the death of Alexander the Great. This new Monarch had come into effect at a time where there was great flourishing in the states of Greece. The military had much success in raiding neighboring cities. This aided in the acquirement of wealth. Greeks were always a people who were intense with there culture and love of art, so it could only be expected that this new age would lead to beautification of there cities, palaces, temples and homes with wonderful art.
The earliest piece we will be discussing is the, “Sarcophagus of the Mourning Women.” This piece cannot be dated solidly, but it is believed to have been created in the latter part of the fourth century BC. It stands about 70 inches high and 104 inches long. The details of this Sarcophagus that interest us are the women who are carved in the frieze. Around the whole exterior there are 18 women but we will concentrate on . The Sarcophagus belonged to a king whose name is unknown. The women who are sculpted are meant to represent his grieving wives and concubines of the late king.
One of the main changes from classical art to Hellenic is that from idealistic to realistic. These grieving women are perfect examples. Each woman appears similar in their clothing, hairstyles, proportions and facial features, but each one is still very different. The most noted differences would be their stance and facial expression. They all come across as mournful but each does so in their own way. The first woman has a hand on her breast and the other bent towards herself. Her right knee is buckled. Her head is slightly turned to the left and pointed downward. All of these details are used frequently throughout Hellenistic art. The human body bends and turns and so to make a realistic representation the statue must mimic the poses of the human body. We see the experimentation of the agility of the body more so in the other two statues. The second is leaning on something and her legs are crossed and stretched out towards the right. Her neck and head are twisted to the left. Her left arm embraces her body while the other is erected towards her face. The third one stands with her whole body twisted tot he right and her right hand holding her vale to her eyes as if an attempt to dry her tears. Her left hand is across her abdomen. All of these poses are creative but realistically showing the emotions that would be set forth in a time of grievance.
Faces prior to this period can be categorized as expressionless, which these women are definitely not. The facial expression on each speaks to us. We know by the detail in the first women’s forehead that sees in feeling pain. The second has a gaze stare into nothing. The third is meant to be crying, so we cannot even see her eyes. The mouths are emotionless.
As we begun to express the attention brought to realism in are we can go further into this idea by mention the piece, “The Old Drunken Women.” This piece not only is a prime example of realism in Hellenistic art, but also in the living of everyday life. Myron did this piece. What the title indicates is exactly what is offered by the sculpture. It uses the theme of “everyday life” which had become a favorite of the Hellenistic artists. The piece especially captures the vulgarity of an elderly woman who has had too much to drink. The new notion is that the youthful faces of idealized classic art have been replaced by those which are not meant to be attractive just realistic so if you were to see the subject in person. This sculpture probable resembles the women unlike the idealized sculptures such of those of Alexander the Great.
Her head is raised up and eyes widened. She clasps her jug of wine with a death grip. It appears that this wine is her dearest possession since her knees are spread almost appearing to be gripping the jug as well. The angle in which her head placed gives the implication that she is already in a drunken state. Her head is slung back as if her neck is incapable of holding it up. The detailed wrinkles of her face are unattractive yet it is hard not to stare at them. The jug that she has is detailed as well with flowers of some sort engraved. Her skin also is impressive. The artist did well by exposing the bones and letting her skin hang off of them. Her attire is well designed as well as the positioning of it. The way in which the linen is falling off of her shoulder goes further to prove that she is in a drunken state.
“Crouching Aphrodite,” was sculpted originally by a sculpture called Doidalas who was from Bythinia. It originally dates to about 50-40 BC. The original was probably done in bronze and had Eros holding a mirror up to her. We have the Roman copies to admire, which there are many around. The one that we will use can be found in museo Nazionale delle Terme in Rome. If we were unaware that this was a Roman copy we could figure it out when noticing the support piece located under the left thigh. This sculptor is also known as the Venus Od Vienna. Aphrodite was often depicted nude or partially clothed. She is usually associated with bathing probably since the myth of her birth has her being born from the ocean. This piece has been critiqued as Aphrodite getting ready to bathe as well. It has many Roman copies that included the one we are examining. In context to the Hellenistic world, this Aphrodite helps in promoting the Greeks concerns with sexuality. The Hellenistic world opens doors to the new and popular interest in sexuality. It had been acceptable for men to be depicted nude for centuries, but there is a new appreciation for the woman’s body in art. It is common to have nude, partial nude and bodies that have cloths that cling to the body rather than covering it. Aphrodite, being the goddess of love, both sexual and spiritual, is the perfect model for such a range.
We see Aphrodite crouched and twisted in such a particular way. Her body today would be described as plump although at the time in Greece it could only be assumed that it was the object of beauty for so many bodies in art were voluptuous and meaty so to say. Aphrodite also being the goddess of love could not bear a figure that was unattractive as well. Her lower back and buttocks seems out of proportion. They are rather large when compared to the head and limbs. Her breasts are full and prominent giving her youthfulness. My favorite aspect of this sculpture would have to be her stomach. She is not fat, but her stomach has wrinkles. The way in which her torso turns realistically depicts the actual way that her stomach would look. It is hard not to appreciate the artists tedious work when admiring the way her head is turn in the opposite direction of her torso.
Movement is also one of the greatest advances in Hellenistic art. We see movement in this era through many scenes of violence. These scenes are a great example of the movement that has metamorphoses in art, but the Greeks have also managed to utilize movement to show images of grace. In no way has it been better portrayed then in sculpture of “Victory of Samothrace”. It is almost unfair to try to describe its beauty on paper.
This sculpture is of the goddess Nike, whose name means victory. This particular statue of her was made approximately 180-160 BC. The battle in which it stood victoriously for is unknown as well as the artist who created it. We know that this does stand for a navel victory since it was made sit at the Prow of a ship. It is widely believed that an artist from Rhodes created her. This idea comes from the fact that the marble used to make her came from the island of Rhodes. She can be found at the Louvre in Paris. She is known to be, the most copied Greek statue and the most recognized.
Her body is extremely sexual. As was mentioned before it was common to draw sex appear by the way a femme wore her cloths. It appears as if a gust of wind is attacking her head on. The draperies smooth out to reveal the curves of her breast. It is hard to believe that she is not clothed in linen the way in which the marble crinkles. She originally is holding a wreath in one of her hands.
Weather it be a piece that mimics its model, creates seemingly impossible movements, captures the beauty of a nude body or be a product of everyday life, the growth in the world of art cannot be ignored. Hellenistic art was truly a genius age where sculptures and other forms of art would captivate the admirers.
Mind that the sample papers like hellenistic art presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Tuesday, August 7, 2012
"A good education is the only path to success"
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like "A good education is the only path to success" even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like "A good education is the only path to success" in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
Nowadays, while some people are trying hard to study skills as much as they wish and acquire knowledge as much as they can, some people seem to ignore formal education which is conducted in Educational Institutions. This differentiation is affected by different background of living, social condition, and opinion. This causes some people to think that the only way that can lead them to success is Education, meanwhile the other have different idea that they have others ways could bring them to success.
As we can see in the real society, educated people are usually got more respect and value than uneducated. This is because of most of them often succeed in their performance of daily life such as successful in getting a job, solving problems, doing business, and achieve what they wish. In reality, jobs are the required and wished carriers of most of educated people. The people who want fulfill this wishes, they must study to get knowledge that relate to those jobs. Without knowledge they are not hired. This is one of success of education. For example, if people want to be accountant in private company, if they have no any knowledge of Accounting, they are not employed because they are not satisfied with having no knowledge of accounting.
Solving problems, which can provide them the needed result, is another success of education. When they study, they are educated many solutions and ideas of famous people to use as the background of solving common problems which are usually occurred. In case they meet those problems in the real situation, they can use those backgrounds to deal these problems easily and successfully without taking much time.
Besides these two forms of success, education also provides another success of doing business. Business is required flexible ideas, performances and strong determination with being patient. It can help people to make a huge amount of money with their knowledge and flexibility which they have acquired so far in their education. When they were studying, they could come out with many ideas of how to do business well, how to make a good decision, how to make a lot of money, how to sell product or services increasingly, how to persuade customer… and after got these ideas, it would be easy for them to run their own business or being hired to do for other people. And most of them often got success without failures. Because of these successes, people have an opinion that education is the only path that can bring them to success.
In opposite to the above opinion, some people, even they haven’t got any education, they are also successful in their life as well. Sometimes, some uneducated people can run a business better than educated one because they have much experiences and those of things usually continue from one generation to another. For example, the Chinese people who live in Cambodia, they know how to do business well even they haven’s studied at school at all and they also make a large amount of money amazingly. At last, they want to transfer that business to their next generation to continue. And these next generations don’t need to study at school, what they should do are just listen and observe what their previous generations have been done so far. And most of them usually succeed in those business. That’s why some people don’t agree to Education is the only path to success.
In conclusion, education helps people a lot to achieve their performances of their daily life and it cannot be considered as the only path to success because there is also exception besides education that can lead people to success as well. Otherwise, as a comment, even though education is not the only path to success, but it is the best way that can lead and help people to success. Therefore, people should try their best to study hard and to acquire knowledge as much as they can because it would give them many benefits in the future exactly.
Mind that the sample papers like "A good education is the only path to success" presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Nowadays, while some people are trying hard to study skills as much as they wish and acquire knowledge as much as they can, some people seem to ignore formal education which is conducted in Educational Institutions. This differentiation is affected by different background of living, social condition, and opinion. This causes some people to think that the only way that can lead them to success is Education, meanwhile the other have different idea that they have others ways could bring them to success.
As we can see in the real society, educated people are usually got more respect and value than uneducated. This is because of most of them often succeed in their performance of daily life such as successful in getting a job, solving problems, doing business, and achieve what they wish. In reality, jobs are the required and wished carriers of most of educated people. The people who want fulfill this wishes, they must study to get knowledge that relate to those jobs. Without knowledge they are not hired. This is one of success of education. For example, if people want to be accountant in private company, if they have no any knowledge of Accounting, they are not employed because they are not satisfied with having no knowledge of accounting.
Solving problems, which can provide them the needed result, is another success of education. When they study, they are educated many solutions and ideas of famous people to use as the background of solving common problems which are usually occurred. In case they meet those problems in the real situation, they can use those backgrounds to deal these problems easily and successfully without taking much time.
Besides these two forms of success, education also provides another success of doing business. Business is required flexible ideas, performances and strong determination with being patient. It can help people to make a huge amount of money with their knowledge and flexibility which they have acquired so far in their education. When they were studying, they could come out with many ideas of how to do business well, how to make a good decision, how to make a lot of money, how to sell product or services increasingly, how to persuade customer… and after got these ideas, it would be easy for them to run their own business or being hired to do for other people. And most of them often got success without failures. Because of these successes, people have an opinion that education is the only path that can bring them to success.
In opposite to the above opinion, some people, even they haven’t got any education, they are also successful in their life as well. Sometimes, some uneducated people can run a business better than educated one because they have much experiences and those of things usually continue from one generation to another. For example, the Chinese people who live in Cambodia, they know how to do business well even they haven’s studied at school at all and they also make a large amount of money amazingly. At last, they want to transfer that business to their next generation to continue. And these next generations don’t need to study at school, what they should do are just listen and observe what their previous generations have been done so far. And most of them usually succeed in those business. That’s why some people don’t agree to Education is the only path to success.
In conclusion, education helps people a lot to achieve their performances of their daily life and it cannot be considered as the only path to success because there is also exception besides education that can lead people to success as well. Otherwise, as a comment, even though education is not the only path to success, but it is the best way that can lead and help people to success. Therefore, people should try their best to study hard and to acquire knowledge as much as they can because it would give them many benefits in the future exactly.
Mind that the sample papers like "A good education is the only path to success" presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Wednesday, July 18, 2012
The Use of Opposites in Othello
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like The Use of Opposites in Othello even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like The Use of Opposites in Othello in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
Shakespeare’s Use of Opposites in Othello
Contrast is a principle element in every form of art. Painters use cool colors to push warm ones forward, dark values to accentuate the lighted areas, and soft edges to give focus to the sharp edges. Writers use calm tempos to make the apex of their stories more powerful. In William Shakespeare’s Othello (reprinted in Thomas R. Arp and Laurence Perrine, Literature Structure, Sound, and Sense, 6th ed. [Fort Worth Harcourt, 1] 1060), Shakespeare uses opposites in character, plot, and language for similar purposes.
Desdemona and Emilia serve as opposites to each other. Desdemona is a beautiful young Venetian woman. She has a very sheltered perspective of the world that leads her to fall in love with Othello’s adventurous past. This sheltered view also extends to her perception of most women. In act four, Desdemona reveals her innocence and purity of thought.
In scene two of act four Othello wrongly accuses Desdemona of being a strumpet. Desdemona is so naive to the world that she doesn’t even know what a strumpet is. She replies, “No, as I am a Christian”, and goes on to insist that she will be saved (4..8). She thinks Othello is referring to her religion instead of her chastity.
In scene three of act four, Desdemona underscores her purity of thought in a question to Emilia. She asks, “Dost thou in conscience think � tell me, Emilia � / that there be women do abuse their husbands / in such gross kind?” (4..5-61). She believes all women to be as chaste as she is and doesn’t think that it is even possible for a woman to do such a thing. Desdemona then asks Emilia, “Wouldn’t thou do such a deed for all the world?” (4..6). Desdemona thinks this is such a horrible act that only “the world” would be proper compensation. This question gives Emilia the chance to reveal a principle difference between her and Desdemona. Emilia replies, “Why, would not you?” (4..6). This conversation shows their misjudgment of each other. Emilia thinks her question is silly because she thinks that cheating on one’s husband is something that any woman would do. Emilia thought Desdemona shared her views and would do the same. Desdemona replies, “No, by this heavenly light!” (4..64) Emilia then says that she would do such things by heavenly light either, but that she would definitely do it in secret. She goes on to say that she would cuckold her husband for his own benefit. Emilia is suggesting that she would do this for her own benefit though, because her notoriety would increase with her husband’s if she could advance his rank. Emilia’s lighthearted view of infidelity juxtaposed with Desdemona’s innocence and purity of thought gives the audience a saintly view of Desdemona.
The structure of this contrast makes the play more interesting and suspenseful. The viewer knows that Othello means to do her harm for the pain she caused him by making a cuckold of him, but it seems impossible that any harm could befall such a character pure in heart as Desdemona.
A smaller character foil can be found in the characters Iago and Roderigo. Roderigo’s stupidity and his inclination to be easily led in mind and action compliment Iago’s cleverness and ability to ensnare the minds and wills of others. In the opening lines of the play, Roderigo tells us that Iago has “had my purse / as if the strings were thine” (1.1.-). Roderigo’s desperate plot to win the affection of Desdemona has blinded his concern for money. He loses all of his money by funding Iago’s attempts to win Desdemona for him. Iago displays his conscious plan at the end of act one saying, “Thus do I ever make my fool my purse” (1..16). His manipulation of Roderigo shows that he is very capable of twisting another’s will for his own benefit.
Roderigo’s character also compliments Iago in the respect that Roderigo wears his heart on his sleeve while Iago’s motives are always hidden from the people he interacts with. Iago outwardly admits to this twice in the first act saying, “I must show out a flag and sign of love, / which indeed but a sign” (1.1.155). He also gives a summary of his character saying, “I am not what I am” (1.1.65). This relationship establishes early on that Iago is anything but honest.
In the same way that Iago said “I am not what I am”, opposites in plot structure are situations that are not what they seem to be. Othello is full of plot antithesis from beginning to end. Shakespeare uses this plot device to increase the drama and suspense in his play, and to evoke a wide spectrum of emotions in his listeners.
The first sign of this device can be seen in act one when Desdemona marries Othello behind her father, Brabantio’s back. Brabantio was deceived by his daughter, Desdemona, thinking she was so calm in nature that she “blushed at herself” (1..6). Upon discovering their marriage, he delivers a line that echoes throughout the play “Fathers, from hence trust not your daughters’ minds / By what you see them act” (1.1.67). This small use of plot antithesis foreshadows Iago’s deceitful plans.
In scene three of act three, Iago turns a harmless situation into a soar in Othello’s mind. Cassio is leaving the scene after taking with Desdemona as Iago and Othello enter the scene. Iago had instructed Cassio to ask Desdemona to speak to Othello on his behalf, yet he immediately insinuates that Cassio was wooing Othello’s wife by suggesting that he had “[stolen] away so guilty-like” (..40). This is the first seed of jealousy that Iago plants in Othello’s mind.
At the beginning of act four Iago sets another jealousy trap for Othello. He tells Othello to hide himself and listen to Cassio confess his affair with Desdemona. In truth, the conversation he overhears is about Cassio’s relationship to Bianca. Iago knows that Cassio “cannot refrain from excess laughter” when he speaks about Bianca, and he uses this to mold Othello’s jealous thoughts (4.1.6-7). Othello eavesdrops on the conversation and interprets it as solid evidence that his wife is having an affair. The audience knows that he is misinterpreting the conversation, and as they watch the event unfold they are made to feel like direct witnesses to Iago’s scheme. The impact of experiencing Iago’s knavery first hand, after he explains to the audience how he plans to ensnare his victims, makes the audience feel like they too are Iago’s victims, being “led by the nose as asses are” (1..77).
The handkerchief ordeal is another use of opposites in the play. Desdemona thinks she has lost her handkerchief and Othello thinks that she has given it to Cassio. In truth, Iago had his wife steal it so that he could use it to weave his web of deception.
Shakespeare also uses opposites in language, through oxymorons, in this play. These combinations of contradictory or incongruous words linger in the listener’s ear, and cause them to contemplate the circumstances further. Two oxymorns exist in this play. Both of which, are spoken by Othello. In scene two of act five Othello murders his wife in their bed. Doing this he says
What noise is this? Not dead? Not yet quite dead?
I that am cruel am yet merciful,
I would not have thee linger in thy pain. (5..85-86)
To the immediate circumstances he is saying that he doesn’t want to cause her pain in her death, and he aims to end her life quickly. But further examination leads to Othello’s truth motives in this murder. By killing Desdemona now, he insures that she has a place in heaven. He still loves her very much at this point, and shows mercy to her soul by allowing her to confess her sins in prayer before she dies. Shakespeare’s use of this oxymoron is a very efficient way of describing the complexities of this murder.
Shakespeare uses another oxymoron as Othello confesses the murder to Lodovico. Othello tells Lodovico that he is “an honorable murderer, if you will. / For naught did [he] in hate, but all in honor” (5..-4). The extreme opposition of the terms, honorable and murderer force the audience to reconsider their judgment of Othello. In Shakespeare’s time it was considered lawful to kill ones wife if she made a cuckold of her husband. Othello is tells Lodovico that his deeds were honorable by law, and he tells the audience that his actions are justified by his wife’s abuse.
Shakespeare’s usage of opposites in language, bind seamlessly with the opposites in characters and plot structure. The contrast of these opposites gives the viewer a point of reference from which to judge the individual parts. Together, they intensify the drama of the play and involve the audience mentally and emotionally.
Mind that the sample papers like The Use of Opposites in Othello presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Shakespeare’s Use of Opposites in Othello
Contrast is a principle element in every form of art. Painters use cool colors to push warm ones forward, dark values to accentuate the lighted areas, and soft edges to give focus to the sharp edges. Writers use calm tempos to make the apex of their stories more powerful. In William Shakespeare’s Othello (reprinted in Thomas R. Arp and Laurence Perrine, Literature Structure, Sound, and Sense, 6th ed. [Fort Worth Harcourt, 1] 1060), Shakespeare uses opposites in character, plot, and language for similar purposes.
Desdemona and Emilia serve as opposites to each other. Desdemona is a beautiful young Venetian woman. She has a very sheltered perspective of the world that leads her to fall in love with Othello’s adventurous past. This sheltered view also extends to her perception of most women. In act four, Desdemona reveals her innocence and purity of thought.
In scene two of act four Othello wrongly accuses Desdemona of being a strumpet. Desdemona is so naive to the world that she doesn’t even know what a strumpet is. She replies, “No, as I am a Christian”, and goes on to insist that she will be saved (4..8). She thinks Othello is referring to her religion instead of her chastity.
In scene three of act four, Desdemona underscores her purity of thought in a question to Emilia. She asks, “Dost thou in conscience think � tell me, Emilia � / that there be women do abuse their husbands / in such gross kind?” (4..5-61). She believes all women to be as chaste as she is and doesn’t think that it is even possible for a woman to do such a thing. Desdemona then asks Emilia, “Wouldn’t thou do such a deed for all the world?” (4..6). Desdemona thinks this is such a horrible act that only “the world” would be proper compensation. This question gives Emilia the chance to reveal a principle difference between her and Desdemona. Emilia replies, “Why, would not you?” (4..6). This conversation shows their misjudgment of each other. Emilia thinks her question is silly because she thinks that cheating on one’s husband is something that any woman would do. Emilia thought Desdemona shared her views and would do the same. Desdemona replies, “No, by this heavenly light!” (4..64) Emilia then says that she would do such things by heavenly light either, but that she would definitely do it in secret. She goes on to say that she would cuckold her husband for his own benefit. Emilia is suggesting that she would do this for her own benefit though, because her notoriety would increase with her husband’s if she could advance his rank. Emilia’s lighthearted view of infidelity juxtaposed with Desdemona’s innocence and purity of thought gives the audience a saintly view of Desdemona.
The structure of this contrast makes the play more interesting and suspenseful. The viewer knows that Othello means to do her harm for the pain she caused him by making a cuckold of him, but it seems impossible that any harm could befall such a character pure in heart as Desdemona.
A smaller character foil can be found in the characters Iago and Roderigo. Roderigo’s stupidity and his inclination to be easily led in mind and action compliment Iago’s cleverness and ability to ensnare the minds and wills of others. In the opening lines of the play, Roderigo tells us that Iago has “had my purse / as if the strings were thine” (1.1.-). Roderigo’s desperate plot to win the affection of Desdemona has blinded his concern for money. He loses all of his money by funding Iago’s attempts to win Desdemona for him. Iago displays his conscious plan at the end of act one saying, “Thus do I ever make my fool my purse” (1..16). His manipulation of Roderigo shows that he is very capable of twisting another’s will for his own benefit.
Roderigo’s character also compliments Iago in the respect that Roderigo wears his heart on his sleeve while Iago’s motives are always hidden from the people he interacts with. Iago outwardly admits to this twice in the first act saying, “I must show out a flag and sign of love, / which indeed but a sign” (1.1.155). He also gives a summary of his character saying, “I am not what I am” (1.1.65). This relationship establishes early on that Iago is anything but honest.
In the same way that Iago said “I am not what I am”, opposites in plot structure are situations that are not what they seem to be. Othello is full of plot antithesis from beginning to end. Shakespeare uses this plot device to increase the drama and suspense in his play, and to evoke a wide spectrum of emotions in his listeners.
The first sign of this device can be seen in act one when Desdemona marries Othello behind her father, Brabantio’s back. Brabantio was deceived by his daughter, Desdemona, thinking she was so calm in nature that she “blushed at herself” (1..6). Upon discovering their marriage, he delivers a line that echoes throughout the play “Fathers, from hence trust not your daughters’ minds / By what you see them act” (1.1.67). This small use of plot antithesis foreshadows Iago’s deceitful plans.
In scene three of act three, Iago turns a harmless situation into a soar in Othello’s mind. Cassio is leaving the scene after taking with Desdemona as Iago and Othello enter the scene. Iago had instructed Cassio to ask Desdemona to speak to Othello on his behalf, yet he immediately insinuates that Cassio was wooing Othello’s wife by suggesting that he had “[stolen] away so guilty-like” (..40). This is the first seed of jealousy that Iago plants in Othello’s mind.
At the beginning of act four Iago sets another jealousy trap for Othello. He tells Othello to hide himself and listen to Cassio confess his affair with Desdemona. In truth, the conversation he overhears is about Cassio’s relationship to Bianca. Iago knows that Cassio “cannot refrain from excess laughter” when he speaks about Bianca, and he uses this to mold Othello’s jealous thoughts (4.1.6-7). Othello eavesdrops on the conversation and interprets it as solid evidence that his wife is having an affair. The audience knows that he is misinterpreting the conversation, and as they watch the event unfold they are made to feel like direct witnesses to Iago’s scheme. The impact of experiencing Iago’s knavery first hand, after he explains to the audience how he plans to ensnare his victims, makes the audience feel like they too are Iago’s victims, being “led by the nose as asses are” (1..77).
The handkerchief ordeal is another use of opposites in the play. Desdemona thinks she has lost her handkerchief and Othello thinks that she has given it to Cassio. In truth, Iago had his wife steal it so that he could use it to weave his web of deception.
Shakespeare also uses opposites in language, through oxymorons, in this play. These combinations of contradictory or incongruous words linger in the listener’s ear, and cause them to contemplate the circumstances further. Two oxymorns exist in this play. Both of which, are spoken by Othello. In scene two of act five Othello murders his wife in their bed. Doing this he says
What noise is this? Not dead? Not yet quite dead?
I that am cruel am yet merciful,
I would not have thee linger in thy pain. (5..85-86)
To the immediate circumstances he is saying that he doesn’t want to cause her pain in her death, and he aims to end her life quickly. But further examination leads to Othello’s truth motives in this murder. By killing Desdemona now, he insures that she has a place in heaven. He still loves her very much at this point, and shows mercy to her soul by allowing her to confess her sins in prayer before she dies. Shakespeare’s use of this oxymoron is a very efficient way of describing the complexities of this murder.
Shakespeare uses another oxymoron as Othello confesses the murder to Lodovico. Othello tells Lodovico that he is “an honorable murderer, if you will. / For naught did [he] in hate, but all in honor” (5..-4). The extreme opposition of the terms, honorable and murderer force the audience to reconsider their judgment of Othello. In Shakespeare’s time it was considered lawful to kill ones wife if she made a cuckold of her husband. Othello is tells Lodovico that his deeds were honorable by law, and he tells the audience that his actions are justified by his wife’s abuse.
Shakespeare’s usage of opposites in language, bind seamlessly with the opposites in characters and plot structure. The contrast of these opposites gives the viewer a point of reference from which to judge the individual parts. Together, they intensify the drama of the play and involve the audience mentally and emotionally.
Mind that the sample papers like The Use of Opposites in Othello presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Thursday, July 12, 2012
knowledge management
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Knowledge Management
The frame of knowledge
The literature of knowledge management goes back over three thousand years. In the Western world, it began with The Instructions of Amenemopet. Written around 1,000 BC, this book was a training manual for Egyptian civil servants and a guide to wise professional practice. Fragments of this document survive in the Bible. We can still read traces of Amenemopet’s advice to young managers in the Book of Proverbs (Aitken 168 ; Johnson 18 x; New Jerusalem Bible 64-5).
Johnson identifies the wisdom literature of the Bible as intensely practical. The Hebrew word for wisdom � chokmah � “means skillfulness in dealing with the job that is before us,” writes Johnson (18 viii), comparing it with the Greek word techne, “the rational application of principles aimed at making or doing something well.”
Many scholars contrast the wisdom embodied in techne to the wisdom embodied in sophia. The contrast is accurate in a linguistic sense. Browning (17 06) describes the writers of the wisdom literature as “intellectuals but not in the Greek tradition of speculative philosophers; Hebrew wisdom was exemplified in practical skills, knowledge about how to manage one’s life and about the purpose of life.”
Johnson erases this distinction. He asserts that the wisdom literature is perfect for anyone “who believes like the Greeks that ‘the unexamined life is not worth living.’” This person, he states, “is by nature a lover of wisdom a philosopher” (Johnson 18 viii).
This leads us to an issue that forms the core of knowledge management, the link between speculation and experience, theory and practice, thought and behavior. This link sustains the process of knowledge creation. The process is embedded in the two phases of a rich cycle. One phase is theorizing. Theorizing transforms tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. The second phase is behavioral adaptation. Behavior transforms explicit knowledge into physical practice.
Nonaka and Takeuchi (15) emphasize the cycle of transformation from explicit knowledge to implicit knowledge and back again. This cycle is the basis of an integrated concept of knowledge richer and more effective than a concept of knowledge based solely on theory and rational planning.
Knowledge creation requires nourishment. Behavior, practice, and experience feed knowledge along with rational cognition and theory building. Different ways of thinking and different kinds of thought shape organizational knowledge. This interplay requires a cycle that anchors new learning in the behavioral web of situated knowledge. In turn, situated knowledge forms the background to new theory.
Practice and reflection, action and theorizing on the results of action unite in effective theory-in-use. Effective theory also considers the system within which we think and act. Consequently, “knowing what” and “knowing how” increasingly involve “knowing why.” The concept of knowledge management has therefore developed a broader and more philosophical frame than most management literature in recent decades.
The earliest wisdom writings emphasize the link between theory and application. If the worthy life requires examination, it is impossible to keep the wisdom of theory � thinking � and the wisdom of practice � doing � apart. Since the Greeks, however, some Western thinkers have proposed a division between thinking and doing, knowledge and action. For Plato, the world of thought is an ideal, immortal world. Plato contrasts the world of idea and archetype to the mortal, physical world in which we live. For Plato, the world of human existence is an inferior shadow of that other, superior reality. Despite his brilliance, Plato himself failed to think through the implied lessons of his teacher, Socrates.
In Plato’s Phaedo, Socrates says that, “the superlative thing to know the explanation of everything, why it comes to be, why it perishes, why it is.” Explanation makes empirical demands. Aristotle understood this, and he was a practitioner of empirical observation. Although limited by human imperfection and available technology, Aristotle was concerned with apprehending the mortal, physical world in an attempt to explain. Aristotle, as much an empirical biologist as a speculative philosopher (Morowitz 1 160-16), has been ill served by the work of scholastic philosophers who concentrated on his other work to the neglect of his research and writing on the life sciences. By the middle ages, Aristotle was the hostage of empty scholasticism. Ignorance of the central role that biology and philosophy of science held in Aristotle’s Academy continues to this day.
But something was missing, even in the Academy. Of the “three great conceptual approaches to science � observation, experimentation, and theory � experimentation was unknown to the classical Greek savants. They worked back and forth between observation and theory and therefore lacked the powerful weapon of falsification to prune wrong theories” (Morowitz 1 161-). Plato’s science stood on one leg, Aristotle’s on two. It was not until the great age of physics that Galileo, Newton and Bacon developed the concept of robust experiment that made scientific progress by stabilizing scientific method with its third leg.
No philosophical debate is ever settled swiftly. Some debates rage and smolder and rage again across the ages. The debates on theory and practice, idealism and realism, thinking and action are no exception. Even so, it seems fairly well resolved that learning precedes knowledge. To create knowledge, we must learn.
Individual learning and organizational learning
Although the process of learning and the nature of knowledge are not completely understood, there is wide agreement that knowledge creation requires experience. Kolb’s (184 8) definition of learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” offers a useful perspective.
Any kind of experience may, in principle, be transformed into knowledge. Kolb emphasizes the relationship between experience and knowledge as a dynamic process of continuous reproduction and regeneration. It contradicts the static model of learning as acquiring knowledge external to and independent of the learner. Information and facts are external to and independent of the learner. Knowledge inheres in human beings and the specific form of knowledge is often contingent on the learning process.
Because knowledge is human, developing knowledge requires thinking and practice, mind and body both. Mindless recording will not transform experience into knowledge. Learning requires human agency, a concept synonymous with Heidegger’s concept of care, the human tendency for each person to care about his own existence (Heidegger 1 8). For Heidegger, both practical knowledge and theoretical knowledge express of human care in an intimate relationship between action and knowledge.
Human knowledge is not only the product of past experience, but the product of anticipating the future. Knowing things involves feedforward as well as feedback, anticipating how things may be used, manipulated or acted on in the future. As children, politicians and scientists all discover, anticipatory knowledge � prediction � is not always accurate. It is part of the knowledge cycle nonetheless.
Kolb’s definition of learning fits together with Heidegger’s concept of care to suggest a model of individual learning that shifts the focus of learning from the adaptation of external behavior to the internal process of knowledge creation. The model outlines the ways in which human beings monitor and control knowledge through three human capacities. These capacities are 1) the ability to act, ) the ability to apprehend action and the environment within which action takes place, ) critical comprehension.
Kolb (184 107) writes that, “Comprehension ... guides our choices of experience and directs our attention to those aspects of apprehended experience to be considered relevant. Comprehension is more than a secondary process of representing selected aspects of apprehended reality. The process of critical comprehension is capable of selecting and reshaping apprehended experience in ways that are more powerful and profound. The power of comprehension has led to the discovery of ever new ways of seeing the world, the very connection between mind and physical reality.” Critical comprehension is the pivotal force in learning.
Figure 1
Learning through critical comprehension
This process integrates experience into knowledge through cycles of action and feedback. Knowledge, in turn, supports the human capacity to understand present situations and shape future action. Experience is transformed into knowledge in several ways. One is reflection on the past. The other is the strategic judgment that human agents make as they design the future. These judgments link human beings to the environment by projecting future possibilities in a complex network of cause and effect. Things are understood through their perceived positions in these networks.
Generalized knowledge
The interaction between experience, anticipation, critical comprehension and knowledge is only part of the story. Situated knowledge also relies on generalized knowledge distinct from � and abstracted from � immediate situations and intentions.
Generalized knowledge guides perception and thus it guides action. It is common knowledge shared among groups of actors. Community among actors depends, in part, on shared common knowledge and the shared nature of general knowledge implies a social process. This social process plays a major role in knowledge creation. While individual actors also create generalized knowledge, every creator of new knowledge builds in part on what has come before. Even the greatest individual creators see farther because they stand, as Newton famously put it, “on the shoulders of giants.” Even individual knowledge creation is thus a social process.
Two more aspects of human agency drive knowledge creation, habit and tacit knowledge. Garfinkel’s (167) experiments demonstrate that a general store of knowledge is essential even to the most mundane activity. This general store of knowledge depends on many factors. These include habituation, tacit knowledge and the larger social stock of generalized knowledge, together with learning based on experience, anticipation, and critical comprehension.
One fascinating aspect of habitualization is the fact that it plays a role in many different theories of knowledge creation. Berger and Luckman (171 70-71) write that, “All human activity is subject to habitualization. Any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be reproduced with an economy of effort and which ipso facto, is apprehended by its performer as that pattern ... In terms of the meanings bestowed by man upon his activity, habitualization makes it unnecessary for each situation to be defined anew, step by step. A large variety of situations may be subsumed under its predefinitions.”
Habitualization need not prohibit critical comprehension. The two processes work together in dialectical relationship. They are distinct yet related dimensions of learning that depend intimately on each other. One form of habitualization results from repeated acts of critical comprehension that transform experience into knowledge. Critical comprehension depends on a generalized store of knowledge generated by habitualization. The knowledge spiral describes the relationships between these aspects of knowledge.
The knowledge management framework posits knowledge creation as a spiral moving through epistemological and ontological dimensions (Nonaka and Takeuchi 15 70-7). The epistemological dimension can be portrayed as a spectrum running from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge. The ontological dimension describes levels of knowledge moving from individual knowledge through group knowledge, organizational knowledge and inter-organizational knowledge. Human beings shift knowledge from one frame to another. As they do so, they embrace knowledge, enlarging it, internalizing it, transmitting it, shifting it, recontextualizing and transforming it. Humans create new knowledge by acting on and working with knowledge. Knowledge creation requires social context and individual contribution.
Dimensions of learning
Intentional human action is sometimes treated as the only influence on social process. While we know that that is not so, the theories-in-use that shape our behavior often rely on purposeful, rational action to the exclusion of other forces.
The world of rational intention described by Weber’s bureaucracy (16), Fayol’s hierarchy (14), or Taylor’s scientific management (147) doesn’t mirror the rich, developmental quality of human enterprise. These models fail to account for knowledge creation. Despite the acknowledged need for innovation and engagement, we often rely on purely rational, models of organizational development. Rational, technocratic models of organization that neglect the existential role of care and agency in human behavior make knowledge creation difficult. In mistakenly rationalizing emotional factors out of human behavior, bureaucracy tends to kill the innovation and resourcefulness on which human enterprise depends. Evolution has not designed human beings to work as the cogs of a grand machine. The Modern Times visualized in Chaplin’s classic film suggest the emotional tone of a world void of human agency and the existential caring on which knowledge creation depends. The endpoint of technocratic, scientific management is the gray, bureaucratic world of Whyte’s (156) Organization Man.
A robust understanding of knowledge and knowledge creation embraces many issues. In addition to generative innovation, purposeful design and conscious adaptation, knowledge creation demands response to environmental change. Behavioral adaptation and the evolutionary feedback of complex adaptive systems is a central force in social process. Evolution, and therefore chance, play powerful roles in learning and innovation. Evolutionary chance involves the element of response to random influence comparable to genetic change in the process of random selection. Biological mutations occur at random under the influence of limited entropy when radiation or other environmental influences affect genetic structure. Shannon and Weaver’s information theory would describe this as a disturbance in the signal for the genetic code. While this is always a form of signal degeneration, however, some genetic deformations create viable new options for survival and growth. When a new genetic development finds an appropriate ecological niche, it survives to become an evolutionary development. Knowledge often works this way. So do many complex adaptive systems.
The process has parallels in human culture and society. New signals change social context, paradigms and world-views. These signals may be purposeful, or they may begin in an unplanned way. They may be the result of signal interference to messages in transmission. They may result from sudden insight. There are many possibilities. When change and chance are embodied in new form, they cease to be random and become evolutionary. Chance is closely allied to experimentation. Feedback from purposeful change, experiment, and chance all contribute to a dialectical progression that spirals upward from tacit knowledge to explicit and back again, crossing levels of learning as the spiral grows. This process closely parallels the growth of scientific knowledge.
Before examining the process of social learning in greater depth, we will develop a model of learning that accounts for both critical comprehension and habitualization as aspects of learning. In doing so, we are aware that habitualization is not always seen as a learning process. This perspective violates the notion of learning as conscious effort by the learner, particularly in models that see learning as the acquisition of external knowledge. Rather than being framed as part of the knowledge creation process, habit is often associated with stagnation and the absence of learning. This can certainly be the case, but it is also clear that comprehending things anew at each encounter is impossible. Habit is as important to human understanding as critical comprehension. The teachers of skills in activities from sports and music to mathematics and surgery are aware of this. The essential learning issue in habit is selecting, developing and rooting habits that serve us. This, too, is why examining patterns and habits is one aspect of learning.
Several models of learning involve the twinned process of building new frames of habit while examining current patterns of behavior and belief. These include Schön’s (18) concept of reflective practice, Argyris’s (177) concept of double-loop learning, and what Senge (10) terms generative learning. As we learn to do things and know things, we also reflect on the frame of knowledge itself. Systematic knowledge of what we know must incorporate knowledge of how we know and embrace the value-laden considerations of why we know and why we act.
Incorporating habitualization into a model of individual learning offers a richer perspective than earlier models. (Figure ) While this model fails to distinguish between the modes of explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge respectively associated with special and general knowledge, it is a useful simplification.
Figure
Individual learning
The model represents the interaction between two dimensions of two aspects of learning. First, it represents the processual and ephemeral dimension of time in contrast to the enduring dimension of time. Second, it represents the special and situated dimension of knowledge in contrast to the general dimension of knowledge. We will next discuss a third aspect of learning, existence in space. This aspect of learning distinguishes between the individual and social dimensions of learning.
Individual learning and social formation
Systems theory explains action as a function of social structure. Mainstream theories of organizational learning locate individual learning within organizational entities. In contrast, we view individual learning as one of the processes that transform collective interaction and mutual experience into an aligned and interconnected collective fabric. This social fabric exists over and above the individual. It is an enduring fabric that may be described in terms of Giddens’s (17) concepts of system and structure.
Giddens’s concepts of system and structure correspond to the situated and generalized dimensions of individual knowledge. Giddens (17 66) defines social systems as “reproduced relations between actors or collectivities.” These are sustained patterns of relationships created by actors with mutual, situated knowledge about each other and their environment. These patterns are produced and reproduced through processes of social positioning (Giddens 184 8-). Individuals align themselves through this process and negotiate critically comprehended experience into networks of mutually acknowledged relations. These relations enmesh individuals in integrated networks of opportunity and obligation. Being mutually acknowledged, they assume a supraindividual quality. In other words, no individual is fully able to define his or her own position within the system.
Giddens categorizes social structure as rules and resources representing generalized knowledge shared among individuals. The social system defines an idiosyncratic social position for each individual. The social structure represents shared stores of knowledge that permit mutually understood, regularized conduct among individuals. Like generalized knowledge, social structure is implicit in social practice. It is generated through social routinization and regionalization in time and space. First, it denotes the creation of socially aligned individual practices. Second, it demarcates their confinement to specific sectors of time and space (Giddens 184 60-64; Giddens 184 chapter ). The social processes of groups resemble the individual processes that are their counterparts. Routinization and regionalization result from repeated processes of systemic positioning. At the same time social positioning requires the mutual understanding implicit in routinized and regionalized social practices.
We may summarize these concepts by locating them within the dimensions of three aspects of learning. These are (1) the ephemeral versus the enduring dimensions of existence in time, () the situated versus the generalized dimensions of knowledge which conform to Giddens’s distinction between the syntagmatic and the paradigmatic and () existence in space, the distinction between the individual and collective dimensions of learning. (Figure )
ephemeral/processual enduring
paradigmatic syntagmatic paradigmatic syntagmatic
collective routinization & regionalization social positioning social structure social system
individual habitualization critical comprehension generalized knowledge situated knowledge
Figure
Three aspects of learning
In much the same way that individual action and experience are grounded in the specific capacities of human body and mind, social interaction and mutual experience are grounded in integration. Giddens defines integration as “reciprocity of practices between actors” in “circumstances of co-presence” (social integration) or “across extended time-space, outside conditions of co-presence” (system integration) (184 76-77).
Unlike the human mind and body, this reciprocity has no organic quality. First, it rests on physical co-presence, possibly mediated. Second, it requires the existence of mutual understandings implicit in a social structure. Third, it demands the network of active social relations that exist in social systems. These three factors configure individual action and experience into mutual interaction and experience. They lead to the alignment and negotiation of individual strategic judgment and practices into collective processes of social positioning, social routinization and social regionalization.
This suggests the comprehensive model (Figure 4) on which we build to develop a concept of organizational learning.
Figure 4
The relationship between individual and social knowledge
From information to knowledge
Daniel Bell’s 167 book on post-industrial society developed two main themes. First, he argued that that the character of knowledge was undergoing significant transformation. Second, he believed that a professional knowledge elite was emerging to manage the new knowledge. Moving from an era of empirical knowledge and practical expertise to an era of theoretical knowledge and technical expertise means that industrial output depends on knowledge-based solutions to an increasingly greater degree. At the same time, we are moving from definitive production concepts to sensitizing production concepts. Developing and using these concepts requires what Bell labeled the professional knowledge elite.
This transformation might itself be described as a knowledge-based process
Figure 5
The knowledge-based company
This pattern describes a process leading from intellectualized work to competence embodied in social change. In the 10s, we are seeing the first major wave of a social transformation that will change our perception of how people work. These will eventually change the way that work is organized.
This can be illustrated as a transformation from knowing what to knowing how. This transformation finally leads to the process-oriented change in organizational learning described in Senge’s Fifth Discipline and Zuboff’s In the Age of the Smart Machine. We can visualize the transformation this way
Figure 6
The dynamic use of technology as a learning tool
Learning and Knowledge
This reorganization is part of a trend that moves from an emphasis on transforming material resources to an emphasis on transforming intellectual resources (Ginman 187). This is not entirely new. To the contrary, the first great classic of economics emphasized the application of intellect to human resources as an essential factor in material production. Adam Smith’s (186 10-117) famous example of the pin factory emphasizes the power of intellect applied to structuring the flow of labor. Smith’s era and the era of industrial revolution that followed placed his concerns in a resolutely material context. In today’s perspective, however, it is possible to see in Smith’s work some of the arguments that emerge again in the discussion of structural capital.
If knowledge management is a relatively new framework, it has been emerging for several decades. W. Edwards Deming’s (186; 1) work in Japanese industry after World War reflect an early version of principles now seen in the literature of knowledge management and organizational learning. Deming (1 6) called for a profound knowledge comprised of “four parts, all related to each other appreciation for a system; knowledge about variation; theory of knowledge; psychology” (Deming 1 6). The concept of profound knowledge establishes a toolbox for broad understanding linked to predictable results.
Nearly ,000 years separate Amenemopet’s writings and Deming’s work. Five decades separate Deming’s great breakthrough in reorganizing industrial work to the reorganization of work in the post-industrial, knowledge economy. At the Norwegian School of Management Department of Knowledge Management, we are as concerned about the long waves of human development and social change as we are convinced of the need for rapid innovation and swift response to the fluctuating currents of change. Both needs are reflected in the dialectical knowledge spiral that links action to thought and practice to reflection. Theory and behavior both form the substance of good management practice, a fact as true in Amenemopet’s time as in our own.
A mere millenium after Amenemopet launched the tradition of wisdom literature, the gospelist John reflected on the relationship between thought and action. His prologue (John 11) reminds us that “in the beginning was the Word.” The word was identified with sophia, wisdom (Proverbs 8; Wisdom 7). The word, the idea � knowledge � came before creation, that ultimate act of feedforward. But creativity, generative innovation demands more than idea alone. It requires action, and only in the act of creation did the word find meaning. For the gospelist, it is only when the word becomes flesh (john 114) through human action that existential care is born.
We cite the Bible not to persuade but to link a rich stream of contemporary management thought to the long lines of human care. Every person must reach his or her own conclusion on the nature of divine wisdom. Human wisdom, whatever form it takes, requires existential care.
Knowledge management and organizational learning clearly involve the search for technical excellence and productivity. But the difference between the knowledge management perspective and technocratic perspectives involves the question of existential care. Caring as instrumental behavior does not give rise to organizational learning in the best sense. True learning begins with caring as agency.
The authors represented here reflect on many different aspects of knowledge, information and agency. Each has his or her own perspective. In introducing the Norwegian School of Management Research Annual, we wanted to raise a broad series of philosophical questions. We also want to share with you an important idea. Work is one of the most important arenas of human activity. We spend nearly half our waking hours at work or involved in work. Work is a source of human identity and human action, individual pride and livelihood. Work is far too important a part of human experience to be considered only in the light of social technology. It is an arena for wisdom. Life must be examined to be worth living, and this examination must also frame our working life. In examining work through the perspective of knowledge management, we frame questions and issues on a grand and important forum of human experience.
References
Aitken, Kenneth T. 168. Proverbs. Philadelphia The Westminster Press.
Argyris, Chris. 177. “Double-loop learning in Organizations.” Harvard Business Review, 55, 5 115-15.
Argyris, Chris and Donald A. Schön. 174. Theory in practice increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.
Bell, Daniel. 176. The coming of post-industrial society. Harmondsworth Penguin.
Berger, Peter and Thomas Luckman. 171 The social construction of reality a treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Harmondsworth Penguin.
Deming, W. Edwards. 186. Out of the crisis quality, productivity and competitive position. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.
Deming, W. Edwards. 1. The new economics for industry, government, education. Cambridge, Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for Advanced Engineering Study.
Fayol, Henri. 14. General and industrial management. London Pitman.
Garfinkel, Harold. 167. Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall.
Giddens, Anthony. 17. Central problems in social theory action, structure and contradiction in social analysis. London Macmillan.
Giddens, Anthony. 184. The constitution of society. Cambridge Polity Press.
Ginman, M. 187. De intellektuella resurstranformationerna . Åbo Åbo akademis förlag.
Heidegger, Martin. 1. Being and time. Oxford Blackwell.
Johnson, Charles. 18. Proverbs an introduction. Edinburgh Canongate.
Kolb, David A. 184. Experiential learning experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall.
Morowitz, Harold J. 1. Entropy and the magic flute. New York Oxford University Press.
The New Jerusalem Bible. 10. New York Doubleday.
Nonaka, Ikujiro and Hirotaka Takeuchi. 15. The knowledge-creating company how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York Oxford University Press.
Olaisen, Johan. 16. “Information, cognitive authority and organizational learning.” In Information science from the development of the discipline to social interaction. Johan Olaisen, Erland Munch-Pedersen and Patrick Wilson, editors. Oslo Scandinavian University Press.
Schön, Donald A. 18. The reflective practitioner how professionals think in action. New York Basic Books.
Schön, Donald A. 187. Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.
Senge, Peter M. 10. The fifth discipline the art and practice of the learning organization. New York Doubleday.
Smith, Adam. 186 (1776). The wealth of nations. Harmondsworth Penguin.
Taylor, Frederick W. 147. Scientific Management. New York Harper.
Weber, Max. 16. The Theory of Social and Economic Orgnization. New York The Free Press.
Whyte, William H., Jr. 156. The Organmiztion Man. New York Doubleday.
Zuboff, Shoshana. 188. In the age of the smart machine. New York Basic Books.
Mind that the sample papers like knowledge management presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Knowledge Management
The frame of knowledge
The literature of knowledge management goes back over three thousand years. In the Western world, it began with The Instructions of Amenemopet. Written around 1,000 BC, this book was a training manual for Egyptian civil servants and a guide to wise professional practice. Fragments of this document survive in the Bible. We can still read traces of Amenemopet’s advice to young managers in the Book of Proverbs (Aitken 168 ; Johnson 18 x; New Jerusalem Bible 64-5).
Johnson identifies the wisdom literature of the Bible as intensely practical. The Hebrew word for wisdom � chokmah � “means skillfulness in dealing with the job that is before us,” writes Johnson (18 viii), comparing it with the Greek word techne, “the rational application of principles aimed at making or doing something well.”
Many scholars contrast the wisdom embodied in techne to the wisdom embodied in sophia. The contrast is accurate in a linguistic sense. Browning (17 06) describes the writers of the wisdom literature as “intellectuals but not in the Greek tradition of speculative philosophers; Hebrew wisdom was exemplified in practical skills, knowledge about how to manage one’s life and about the purpose of life.”
Johnson erases this distinction. He asserts that the wisdom literature is perfect for anyone “who believes like the Greeks that ‘the unexamined life is not worth living.’” This person, he states, “is by nature a lover of wisdom a philosopher” (Johnson 18 viii).
This leads us to an issue that forms the core of knowledge management, the link between speculation and experience, theory and practice, thought and behavior. This link sustains the process of knowledge creation. The process is embedded in the two phases of a rich cycle. One phase is theorizing. Theorizing transforms tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. The second phase is behavioral adaptation. Behavior transforms explicit knowledge into physical practice.
Nonaka and Takeuchi (15) emphasize the cycle of transformation from explicit knowledge to implicit knowledge and back again. This cycle is the basis of an integrated concept of knowledge richer and more effective than a concept of knowledge based solely on theory and rational planning.
Knowledge creation requires nourishment. Behavior, practice, and experience feed knowledge along with rational cognition and theory building. Different ways of thinking and different kinds of thought shape organizational knowledge. This interplay requires a cycle that anchors new learning in the behavioral web of situated knowledge. In turn, situated knowledge forms the background to new theory.
Practice and reflection, action and theorizing on the results of action unite in effective theory-in-use. Effective theory also considers the system within which we think and act. Consequently, “knowing what” and “knowing how” increasingly involve “knowing why.” The concept of knowledge management has therefore developed a broader and more philosophical frame than most management literature in recent decades.
The earliest wisdom writings emphasize the link between theory and application. If the worthy life requires examination, it is impossible to keep the wisdom of theory � thinking � and the wisdom of practice � doing � apart. Since the Greeks, however, some Western thinkers have proposed a division between thinking and doing, knowledge and action. For Plato, the world of thought is an ideal, immortal world. Plato contrasts the world of idea and archetype to the mortal, physical world in which we live. For Plato, the world of human existence is an inferior shadow of that other, superior reality. Despite his brilliance, Plato himself failed to think through the implied lessons of his teacher, Socrates.
In Plato’s Phaedo, Socrates says that, “the superlative thing to know the explanation of everything, why it comes to be, why it perishes, why it is.” Explanation makes empirical demands. Aristotle understood this, and he was a practitioner of empirical observation. Although limited by human imperfection and available technology, Aristotle was concerned with apprehending the mortal, physical world in an attempt to explain. Aristotle, as much an empirical biologist as a speculative philosopher (Morowitz 1 160-16), has been ill served by the work of scholastic philosophers who concentrated on his other work to the neglect of his research and writing on the life sciences. By the middle ages, Aristotle was the hostage of empty scholasticism. Ignorance of the central role that biology and philosophy of science held in Aristotle’s Academy continues to this day.
But something was missing, even in the Academy. Of the “three great conceptual approaches to science � observation, experimentation, and theory � experimentation was unknown to the classical Greek savants. They worked back and forth between observation and theory and therefore lacked the powerful weapon of falsification to prune wrong theories” (Morowitz 1 161-). Plato’s science stood on one leg, Aristotle’s on two. It was not until the great age of physics that Galileo, Newton and Bacon developed the concept of robust experiment that made scientific progress by stabilizing scientific method with its third leg.
No philosophical debate is ever settled swiftly. Some debates rage and smolder and rage again across the ages. The debates on theory and practice, idealism and realism, thinking and action are no exception. Even so, it seems fairly well resolved that learning precedes knowledge. To create knowledge, we must learn.
Individual learning and organizational learning
Although the process of learning and the nature of knowledge are not completely understood, there is wide agreement that knowledge creation requires experience. Kolb’s (184 8) definition of learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” offers a useful perspective.
Any kind of experience may, in principle, be transformed into knowledge. Kolb emphasizes the relationship between experience and knowledge as a dynamic process of continuous reproduction and regeneration. It contradicts the static model of learning as acquiring knowledge external to and independent of the learner. Information and facts are external to and independent of the learner. Knowledge inheres in human beings and the specific form of knowledge is often contingent on the learning process.
Because knowledge is human, developing knowledge requires thinking and practice, mind and body both. Mindless recording will not transform experience into knowledge. Learning requires human agency, a concept synonymous with Heidegger’s concept of care, the human tendency for each person to care about his own existence (Heidegger 1 8). For Heidegger, both practical knowledge and theoretical knowledge express of human care in an intimate relationship between action and knowledge.
Human knowledge is not only the product of past experience, but the product of anticipating the future. Knowing things involves feedforward as well as feedback, anticipating how things may be used, manipulated or acted on in the future. As children, politicians and scientists all discover, anticipatory knowledge � prediction � is not always accurate. It is part of the knowledge cycle nonetheless.
Kolb’s definition of learning fits together with Heidegger’s concept of care to suggest a model of individual learning that shifts the focus of learning from the adaptation of external behavior to the internal process of knowledge creation. The model outlines the ways in which human beings monitor and control knowledge through three human capacities. These capacities are 1) the ability to act, ) the ability to apprehend action and the environment within which action takes place, ) critical comprehension.
Kolb (184 107) writes that, “Comprehension ... guides our choices of experience and directs our attention to those aspects of apprehended experience to be considered relevant. Comprehension is more than a secondary process of representing selected aspects of apprehended reality. The process of critical comprehension is capable of selecting and reshaping apprehended experience in ways that are more powerful and profound. The power of comprehension has led to the discovery of ever new ways of seeing the world, the very connection between mind and physical reality.” Critical comprehension is the pivotal force in learning.
Figure 1
Learning through critical comprehension
This process integrates experience into knowledge through cycles of action and feedback. Knowledge, in turn, supports the human capacity to understand present situations and shape future action. Experience is transformed into knowledge in several ways. One is reflection on the past. The other is the strategic judgment that human agents make as they design the future. These judgments link human beings to the environment by projecting future possibilities in a complex network of cause and effect. Things are understood through their perceived positions in these networks.
Generalized knowledge
The interaction between experience, anticipation, critical comprehension and knowledge is only part of the story. Situated knowledge also relies on generalized knowledge distinct from � and abstracted from � immediate situations and intentions.
Generalized knowledge guides perception and thus it guides action. It is common knowledge shared among groups of actors. Community among actors depends, in part, on shared common knowledge and the shared nature of general knowledge implies a social process. This social process plays a major role in knowledge creation. While individual actors also create generalized knowledge, every creator of new knowledge builds in part on what has come before. Even the greatest individual creators see farther because they stand, as Newton famously put it, “on the shoulders of giants.” Even individual knowledge creation is thus a social process.
Two more aspects of human agency drive knowledge creation, habit and tacit knowledge. Garfinkel’s (167) experiments demonstrate that a general store of knowledge is essential even to the most mundane activity. This general store of knowledge depends on many factors. These include habituation, tacit knowledge and the larger social stock of generalized knowledge, together with learning based on experience, anticipation, and critical comprehension.
One fascinating aspect of habitualization is the fact that it plays a role in many different theories of knowledge creation. Berger and Luckman (171 70-71) write that, “All human activity is subject to habitualization. Any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be reproduced with an economy of effort and which ipso facto, is apprehended by its performer as that pattern ... In terms of the meanings bestowed by man upon his activity, habitualization makes it unnecessary for each situation to be defined anew, step by step. A large variety of situations may be subsumed under its predefinitions.”
Habitualization need not prohibit critical comprehension. The two processes work together in dialectical relationship. They are distinct yet related dimensions of learning that depend intimately on each other. One form of habitualization results from repeated acts of critical comprehension that transform experience into knowledge. Critical comprehension depends on a generalized store of knowledge generated by habitualization. The knowledge spiral describes the relationships between these aspects of knowledge.
The knowledge management framework posits knowledge creation as a spiral moving through epistemological and ontological dimensions (Nonaka and Takeuchi 15 70-7). The epistemological dimension can be portrayed as a spectrum running from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge. The ontological dimension describes levels of knowledge moving from individual knowledge through group knowledge, organizational knowledge and inter-organizational knowledge. Human beings shift knowledge from one frame to another. As they do so, they embrace knowledge, enlarging it, internalizing it, transmitting it, shifting it, recontextualizing and transforming it. Humans create new knowledge by acting on and working with knowledge. Knowledge creation requires social context and individual contribution.
Dimensions of learning
Intentional human action is sometimes treated as the only influence on social process. While we know that that is not so, the theories-in-use that shape our behavior often rely on purposeful, rational action to the exclusion of other forces.
The world of rational intention described by Weber’s bureaucracy (16), Fayol’s hierarchy (14), or Taylor’s scientific management (147) doesn’t mirror the rich, developmental quality of human enterprise. These models fail to account for knowledge creation. Despite the acknowledged need for innovation and engagement, we often rely on purely rational, models of organizational development. Rational, technocratic models of organization that neglect the existential role of care and agency in human behavior make knowledge creation difficult. In mistakenly rationalizing emotional factors out of human behavior, bureaucracy tends to kill the innovation and resourcefulness on which human enterprise depends. Evolution has not designed human beings to work as the cogs of a grand machine. The Modern Times visualized in Chaplin’s classic film suggest the emotional tone of a world void of human agency and the existential caring on which knowledge creation depends. The endpoint of technocratic, scientific management is the gray, bureaucratic world of Whyte’s (156) Organization Man.
A robust understanding of knowledge and knowledge creation embraces many issues. In addition to generative innovation, purposeful design and conscious adaptation, knowledge creation demands response to environmental change. Behavioral adaptation and the evolutionary feedback of complex adaptive systems is a central force in social process. Evolution, and therefore chance, play powerful roles in learning and innovation. Evolutionary chance involves the element of response to random influence comparable to genetic change in the process of random selection. Biological mutations occur at random under the influence of limited entropy when radiation or other environmental influences affect genetic structure. Shannon and Weaver’s information theory would describe this as a disturbance in the signal for the genetic code. While this is always a form of signal degeneration, however, some genetic deformations create viable new options for survival and growth. When a new genetic development finds an appropriate ecological niche, it survives to become an evolutionary development. Knowledge often works this way. So do many complex adaptive systems.
The process has parallels in human culture and society. New signals change social context, paradigms and world-views. These signals may be purposeful, or they may begin in an unplanned way. They may be the result of signal interference to messages in transmission. They may result from sudden insight. There are many possibilities. When change and chance are embodied in new form, they cease to be random and become evolutionary. Chance is closely allied to experimentation. Feedback from purposeful change, experiment, and chance all contribute to a dialectical progression that spirals upward from tacit knowledge to explicit and back again, crossing levels of learning as the spiral grows. This process closely parallels the growth of scientific knowledge.
Before examining the process of social learning in greater depth, we will develop a model of learning that accounts for both critical comprehension and habitualization as aspects of learning. In doing so, we are aware that habitualization is not always seen as a learning process. This perspective violates the notion of learning as conscious effort by the learner, particularly in models that see learning as the acquisition of external knowledge. Rather than being framed as part of the knowledge creation process, habit is often associated with stagnation and the absence of learning. This can certainly be the case, but it is also clear that comprehending things anew at each encounter is impossible. Habit is as important to human understanding as critical comprehension. The teachers of skills in activities from sports and music to mathematics and surgery are aware of this. The essential learning issue in habit is selecting, developing and rooting habits that serve us. This, too, is why examining patterns and habits is one aspect of learning.
Several models of learning involve the twinned process of building new frames of habit while examining current patterns of behavior and belief. These include Schön’s (18) concept of reflective practice, Argyris’s (177) concept of double-loop learning, and what Senge (10) terms generative learning. As we learn to do things and know things, we also reflect on the frame of knowledge itself. Systematic knowledge of what we know must incorporate knowledge of how we know and embrace the value-laden considerations of why we know and why we act.
Incorporating habitualization into a model of individual learning offers a richer perspective than earlier models. (Figure ) While this model fails to distinguish between the modes of explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge respectively associated with special and general knowledge, it is a useful simplification.
Figure
Individual learning
The model represents the interaction between two dimensions of two aspects of learning. First, it represents the processual and ephemeral dimension of time in contrast to the enduring dimension of time. Second, it represents the special and situated dimension of knowledge in contrast to the general dimension of knowledge. We will next discuss a third aspect of learning, existence in space. This aspect of learning distinguishes between the individual and social dimensions of learning.
Individual learning and social formation
Systems theory explains action as a function of social structure. Mainstream theories of organizational learning locate individual learning within organizational entities. In contrast, we view individual learning as one of the processes that transform collective interaction and mutual experience into an aligned and interconnected collective fabric. This social fabric exists over and above the individual. It is an enduring fabric that may be described in terms of Giddens’s (17) concepts of system and structure.
Giddens’s concepts of system and structure correspond to the situated and generalized dimensions of individual knowledge. Giddens (17 66) defines social systems as “reproduced relations between actors or collectivities.” These are sustained patterns of relationships created by actors with mutual, situated knowledge about each other and their environment. These patterns are produced and reproduced through processes of social positioning (Giddens 184 8-). Individuals align themselves through this process and negotiate critically comprehended experience into networks of mutually acknowledged relations. These relations enmesh individuals in integrated networks of opportunity and obligation. Being mutually acknowledged, they assume a supraindividual quality. In other words, no individual is fully able to define his or her own position within the system.
Giddens categorizes social structure as rules and resources representing generalized knowledge shared among individuals. The social system defines an idiosyncratic social position for each individual. The social structure represents shared stores of knowledge that permit mutually understood, regularized conduct among individuals. Like generalized knowledge, social structure is implicit in social practice. It is generated through social routinization and regionalization in time and space. First, it denotes the creation of socially aligned individual practices. Second, it demarcates their confinement to specific sectors of time and space (Giddens 184 60-64; Giddens 184 chapter ). The social processes of groups resemble the individual processes that are their counterparts. Routinization and regionalization result from repeated processes of systemic positioning. At the same time social positioning requires the mutual understanding implicit in routinized and regionalized social practices.
We may summarize these concepts by locating them within the dimensions of three aspects of learning. These are (1) the ephemeral versus the enduring dimensions of existence in time, () the situated versus the generalized dimensions of knowledge which conform to Giddens’s distinction between the syntagmatic and the paradigmatic and () existence in space, the distinction between the individual and collective dimensions of learning. (Figure )
ephemeral/processual enduring
paradigmatic syntagmatic paradigmatic syntagmatic
collective routinization & regionalization social positioning social structure social system
individual habitualization critical comprehension generalized knowledge situated knowledge
Figure
Three aspects of learning
In much the same way that individual action and experience are grounded in the specific capacities of human body and mind, social interaction and mutual experience are grounded in integration. Giddens defines integration as “reciprocity of practices between actors” in “circumstances of co-presence” (social integration) or “across extended time-space, outside conditions of co-presence” (system integration) (184 76-77).
Unlike the human mind and body, this reciprocity has no organic quality. First, it rests on physical co-presence, possibly mediated. Second, it requires the existence of mutual understandings implicit in a social structure. Third, it demands the network of active social relations that exist in social systems. These three factors configure individual action and experience into mutual interaction and experience. They lead to the alignment and negotiation of individual strategic judgment and practices into collective processes of social positioning, social routinization and social regionalization.
This suggests the comprehensive model (Figure 4) on which we build to develop a concept of organizational learning.
Figure 4
The relationship between individual and social knowledge
From information to knowledge
Daniel Bell’s 167 book on post-industrial society developed two main themes. First, he argued that that the character of knowledge was undergoing significant transformation. Second, he believed that a professional knowledge elite was emerging to manage the new knowledge. Moving from an era of empirical knowledge and practical expertise to an era of theoretical knowledge and technical expertise means that industrial output depends on knowledge-based solutions to an increasingly greater degree. At the same time, we are moving from definitive production concepts to sensitizing production concepts. Developing and using these concepts requires what Bell labeled the professional knowledge elite.
This transformation might itself be described as a knowledge-based process
Figure 5
The knowledge-based company
This pattern describes a process leading from intellectualized work to competence embodied in social change. In the 10s, we are seeing the first major wave of a social transformation that will change our perception of how people work. These will eventually change the way that work is organized.
This can be illustrated as a transformation from knowing what to knowing how. This transformation finally leads to the process-oriented change in organizational learning described in Senge’s Fifth Discipline and Zuboff’s In the Age of the Smart Machine. We can visualize the transformation this way
Figure 6
The dynamic use of technology as a learning tool
Learning and Knowledge
This reorganization is part of a trend that moves from an emphasis on transforming material resources to an emphasis on transforming intellectual resources (Ginman 187). This is not entirely new. To the contrary, the first great classic of economics emphasized the application of intellect to human resources as an essential factor in material production. Adam Smith’s (186 10-117) famous example of the pin factory emphasizes the power of intellect applied to structuring the flow of labor. Smith’s era and the era of industrial revolution that followed placed his concerns in a resolutely material context. In today’s perspective, however, it is possible to see in Smith’s work some of the arguments that emerge again in the discussion of structural capital.
If knowledge management is a relatively new framework, it has been emerging for several decades. W. Edwards Deming’s (186; 1) work in Japanese industry after World War reflect an early version of principles now seen in the literature of knowledge management and organizational learning. Deming (1 6) called for a profound knowledge comprised of “four parts, all related to each other appreciation for a system; knowledge about variation; theory of knowledge; psychology” (Deming 1 6). The concept of profound knowledge establishes a toolbox for broad understanding linked to predictable results.
Nearly ,000 years separate Amenemopet’s writings and Deming’s work. Five decades separate Deming’s great breakthrough in reorganizing industrial work to the reorganization of work in the post-industrial, knowledge economy. At the Norwegian School of Management Department of Knowledge Management, we are as concerned about the long waves of human development and social change as we are convinced of the need for rapid innovation and swift response to the fluctuating currents of change. Both needs are reflected in the dialectical knowledge spiral that links action to thought and practice to reflection. Theory and behavior both form the substance of good management practice, a fact as true in Amenemopet’s time as in our own.
A mere millenium after Amenemopet launched the tradition of wisdom literature, the gospelist John reflected on the relationship between thought and action. His prologue (John 11) reminds us that “in the beginning was the Word.” The word was identified with sophia, wisdom (Proverbs 8; Wisdom 7). The word, the idea � knowledge � came before creation, that ultimate act of feedforward. But creativity, generative innovation demands more than idea alone. It requires action, and only in the act of creation did the word find meaning. For the gospelist, it is only when the word becomes flesh (john 114) through human action that existential care is born.
We cite the Bible not to persuade but to link a rich stream of contemporary management thought to the long lines of human care. Every person must reach his or her own conclusion on the nature of divine wisdom. Human wisdom, whatever form it takes, requires existential care.
Knowledge management and organizational learning clearly involve the search for technical excellence and productivity. But the difference between the knowledge management perspective and technocratic perspectives involves the question of existential care. Caring as instrumental behavior does not give rise to organizational learning in the best sense. True learning begins with caring as agency.
The authors represented here reflect on many different aspects of knowledge, information and agency. Each has his or her own perspective. In introducing the Norwegian School of Management Research Annual, we wanted to raise a broad series of philosophical questions. We also want to share with you an important idea. Work is one of the most important arenas of human activity. We spend nearly half our waking hours at work or involved in work. Work is a source of human identity and human action, individual pride and livelihood. Work is far too important a part of human experience to be considered only in the light of social technology. It is an arena for wisdom. Life must be examined to be worth living, and this examination must also frame our working life. In examining work through the perspective of knowledge management, we frame questions and issues on a grand and important forum of human experience.
References
Aitken, Kenneth T. 168. Proverbs. Philadelphia The Westminster Press.
Argyris, Chris. 177. “Double-loop learning in Organizations.” Harvard Business Review, 55, 5 115-15.
Argyris, Chris and Donald A. Schön. 174. Theory in practice increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.
Bell, Daniel. 176. The coming of post-industrial society. Harmondsworth Penguin.
Berger, Peter and Thomas Luckman. 171 The social construction of reality a treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Harmondsworth Penguin.
Deming, W. Edwards. 186. Out of the crisis quality, productivity and competitive position. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.
Deming, W. Edwards. 1. The new economics for industry, government, education. Cambridge, Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for Advanced Engineering Study.
Fayol, Henri. 14. General and industrial management. London Pitman.
Garfinkel, Harold. 167. Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall.
Giddens, Anthony. 17. Central problems in social theory action, structure and contradiction in social analysis. London Macmillan.
Giddens, Anthony. 184. The constitution of society. Cambridge Polity Press.
Ginman, M. 187. De intellektuella resurstranformationerna . Åbo Åbo akademis förlag.
Heidegger, Martin. 1. Being and time. Oxford Blackwell.
Johnson, Charles. 18. Proverbs an introduction. Edinburgh Canongate.
Kolb, David A. 184. Experiential learning experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall.
Morowitz, Harold J. 1. Entropy and the magic flute. New York Oxford University Press.
The New Jerusalem Bible. 10. New York Doubleday.
Nonaka, Ikujiro and Hirotaka Takeuchi. 15. The knowledge-creating company how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York Oxford University Press.
Olaisen, Johan. 16. “Information, cognitive authority and organizational learning.” In Information science from the development of the discipline to social interaction. Johan Olaisen, Erland Munch-Pedersen and Patrick Wilson, editors. Oslo Scandinavian University Press.
Schön, Donald A. 18. The reflective practitioner how professionals think in action. New York Basic Books.
Schön, Donald A. 187. Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.
Senge, Peter M. 10. The fifth discipline the art and practice of the learning organization. New York Doubleday.
Smith, Adam. 186 (1776). The wealth of nations. Harmondsworth Penguin.
Taylor, Frederick W. 147. Scientific Management. New York Harper.
Weber, Max. 16. The Theory of Social and Economic Orgnization. New York The Free Press.
Whyte, William H., Jr. 156. The Organmiztion Man. New York Doubleday.
Zuboff, Shoshana. 188. In the age of the smart machine. New York Basic Books.
Mind that the sample papers like knowledge management presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
ARTICLE REVIEW ECO360
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like ARTICLE REVIEW ECO360 even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like ARTICLE REVIEW ECO360 in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
In the article No State Strategy for Trade, author Jock O’Connell elaborates about the possible ramifications of the State of California’s recent decision to abolish the California State World Trade Commission (WTC). Despite the fact that California is one of the worlds foremost economies, with sizeable stakes on what decisions will be made, this month the World Trade Commission will represent California at the negotiating table regarding the reduction in trade barriers in Cancun Mexico. In this article, O’Connell describes the rise and fall of the commission and further offers his interpretation of a possible resolution in the handling of the state’s trade related matters for the future.
According to a report published by the San Francisco based Public Policy Institute of California, the state has different trade interests than other states. California firms rely more heavily on exports than do other United States companies with exports representing 10% of California’s economic output, as compared to 7.6% for the rest of the country. This mix of products ranges from produce, fruits, wines, nuts, and manufacturing of high-technology products. Other parts of the country export items such as soybeans, and raw grains. This output makes California more reliant on the Far East than other parts of the United States.
Despite the heavy trade out of California, Governor Grey Davis signed a budget eliminating the California Technology, Trade, and Commerce Agency, as well as the California Sate World Trade Commission. This cost saving move has been highly criticized leaving people wondering what will be the next step. (O’Connell, 00)
According to O’Connell, for at least a decade no one has really been minding the California store with regards to foreign trade. Beginning in 1, the California State World Trade Commission was absorbed into the California Technology, Trade, and Commerce Agency. After this period O’Connell suggests that the entire commission was in some way a smoke screen; “political operatives whose prime directive in running the trade agency was apparently to smother any original thoughts or policy initiatives that might venture their way.” Essentially, for ten years California has been supporting salaries and the commission has been producing little to no global growth ideas or results. The commission became a public embarrassment over these years as individuals were appointed to the commission with no international trade experience.
While the international trading world has been thrust into ever changing technology with continuous advancement in communication, transportation, global supply chains, and “successive waves of trade liberalization”, California has been operating under the concepts that were established in the 180’s. All of this has been happening while California has continued to have increases in export trade, now representing a $100 billion a year. (O’Connell, 00)
So, with the abolishment of the commission’s that have previously (albeit poorly) represented California’s trade interests, O’Connell suggests a new approach. His approach would be to reconstitute the California State World Trade Commission as an “independent, privately financed commission of bona fide international business people, economic development officials, and trade economists.” This revised commission would hold the responsibility of representing California in ensuring its future and competitiveness in global trade.
Since Haas Automation, Incorporated is both a California based company, and a large export company with approximately 5% of its total revenue volume export based, these recent decisions could have a major impact on the company. Haas exports computer numeric controlled milling machines, as well as replacement parts worldwide. The impact could be tremendous. Haas is currently expanding its international focus. The most recent change was the introduction of the Haas Factory Outlet in China. This expansion will continue into numerous markets in the upcoming years. Haas intends on growing its international market to match the current level of its domestic business. This means Haas current export business is approximately 105 million it is intended to grow by 00% to just over 00 million annually.
One thing of notice from O’Connell’s report, California is not going completely unrepresented as the WTC will keep a watchful eye over California’s trade interests. Likewise the WTC will represent California at the meeting to be held this month in Cancun. The question is does this individual know the impact he or she could have such a large export region?
Another interesting point in O’Connell’s description of recent years is, if there have been virtually no changes in the past decade then the interim is not likely to shutdown California exporting, as business will continue as it has in the past, however a gate keeper is necessary down the road to foster improvements. The idea of having qualified economists representing the state, as well as true business people that have a vested interest seemingly is a great way of making sure the state is represented well as a whole. Who better to make the decisions than those that have to live with the choices?
If O’Connell’s recant is accurate, revamping the export trade commission and reviewing the current situation in California appears to be much needed. From the perspective of someone who works for a California based company that has a significant portion of its overall business conducted through exporting, it is important that this situation gets resolved soon. California is not getting smaller. More exporting will be required and new trade policies, reviews of tariffs, as well as plans for continued growth are an absolute necessity to remain competitive in this ever changing global environment.
References
O’Connell, J., 00 No State Strategy for Trade, The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 00
Available [Online] http//www.sacbee.com/content/opinion/story
References
O’Connell, J., 00 No State Strategy for Trade, The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 00
Available [Online] http//www.sacbee.com/content/opinion/story
Mind that the sample papers like ARTICLE REVIEW ECO360 presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
In the article No State Strategy for Trade, author Jock O’Connell elaborates about the possible ramifications of the State of California’s recent decision to abolish the California State World Trade Commission (WTC). Despite the fact that California is one of the worlds foremost economies, with sizeable stakes on what decisions will be made, this month the World Trade Commission will represent California at the negotiating table regarding the reduction in trade barriers in Cancun Mexico. In this article, O’Connell describes the rise and fall of the commission and further offers his interpretation of a possible resolution in the handling of the state’s trade related matters for the future.
According to a report published by the San Francisco based Public Policy Institute of California, the state has different trade interests than other states. California firms rely more heavily on exports than do other United States companies with exports representing 10% of California’s economic output, as compared to 7.6% for the rest of the country. This mix of products ranges from produce, fruits, wines, nuts, and manufacturing of high-technology products. Other parts of the country export items such as soybeans, and raw grains. This output makes California more reliant on the Far East than other parts of the United States.
Despite the heavy trade out of California, Governor Grey Davis signed a budget eliminating the California Technology, Trade, and Commerce Agency, as well as the California Sate World Trade Commission. This cost saving move has been highly criticized leaving people wondering what will be the next step. (O’Connell, 00)
According to O’Connell, for at least a decade no one has really been minding the California store with regards to foreign trade. Beginning in 1, the California State World Trade Commission was absorbed into the California Technology, Trade, and Commerce Agency. After this period O’Connell suggests that the entire commission was in some way a smoke screen; “political operatives whose prime directive in running the trade agency was apparently to smother any original thoughts or policy initiatives that might venture their way.” Essentially, for ten years California has been supporting salaries and the commission has been producing little to no global growth ideas or results. The commission became a public embarrassment over these years as individuals were appointed to the commission with no international trade experience.
While the international trading world has been thrust into ever changing technology with continuous advancement in communication, transportation, global supply chains, and “successive waves of trade liberalization”, California has been operating under the concepts that were established in the 180’s. All of this has been happening while California has continued to have increases in export trade, now representing a $100 billion a year. (O’Connell, 00)
So, with the abolishment of the commission’s that have previously (albeit poorly) represented California’s trade interests, O’Connell suggests a new approach. His approach would be to reconstitute the California State World Trade Commission as an “independent, privately financed commission of bona fide international business people, economic development officials, and trade economists.” This revised commission would hold the responsibility of representing California in ensuring its future and competitiveness in global trade.
Since Haas Automation, Incorporated is both a California based company, and a large export company with approximately 5% of its total revenue volume export based, these recent decisions could have a major impact on the company. Haas exports computer numeric controlled milling machines, as well as replacement parts worldwide. The impact could be tremendous. Haas is currently expanding its international focus. The most recent change was the introduction of the Haas Factory Outlet in China. This expansion will continue into numerous markets in the upcoming years. Haas intends on growing its international market to match the current level of its domestic business. This means Haas current export business is approximately 105 million it is intended to grow by 00% to just over 00 million annually.
One thing of notice from O’Connell’s report, California is not going completely unrepresented as the WTC will keep a watchful eye over California’s trade interests. Likewise the WTC will represent California at the meeting to be held this month in Cancun. The question is does this individual know the impact he or she could have such a large export region?
Another interesting point in O’Connell’s description of recent years is, if there have been virtually no changes in the past decade then the interim is not likely to shutdown California exporting, as business will continue as it has in the past, however a gate keeper is necessary down the road to foster improvements. The idea of having qualified economists representing the state, as well as true business people that have a vested interest seemingly is a great way of making sure the state is represented well as a whole. Who better to make the decisions than those that have to live with the choices?
If O’Connell’s recant is accurate, revamping the export trade commission and reviewing the current situation in California appears to be much needed. From the perspective of someone who works for a California based company that has a significant portion of its overall business conducted through exporting, it is important that this situation gets resolved soon. California is not getting smaller. More exporting will be required and new trade policies, reviews of tariffs, as well as plans for continued growth are an absolute necessity to remain competitive in this ever changing global environment.
References
O’Connell, J., 00 No State Strategy for Trade, The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 00
Available [Online] http//www.sacbee.com/content/opinion/story
References
O’Connell, J., 00 No State Strategy for Trade, The Sacramento Bee, August 4, 00
Available [Online] http//www.sacbee.com/content/opinion/story
Mind that the sample papers like ARTICLE REVIEW ECO360 presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
The family has continued to be the primary setting for many children’s books of integrity
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like The family has continued to be the primary setting for many children’s books of integrity even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like The family has continued to be the primary setting for many children’s books of integrity in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
Australia being the multicultural society that it is; faces a wealth of both problems and assets, from different foods originating from all over the world, to various religious beliefs. This is both a blessing and a curse for Australians. Children’s authors have strived to combat the problem by writing about everyday problems, in a language that children and adolescents can comprehend. The main problem of Australian society is, and has always been ‘the family unit’. Whether through bigotry and racism (“Two hands together” by Dianna Kidd), shame (“Looking for Alibrandi” by Melina Marchetta), and assets that Australian society is indeed renowned for Patriotism, Ocker-ism and ‘the Australian way’ (“Solider boy” by Anthony Hill).
Children in today’s informational glut are faced with more problems than ever before. Television, ‘the internet’, computer games all strive to take away time that was once considered ‘quality family time’. As a consequence, it is refreshing to note that children’s books tackle relevant issues that most children and adolescents face in today’s busy lifestyle.
Reviewed texts that revolve around such significant contemporary themes, include
- Looking for Alibrandi by Melina Marchetta
- Two hands together by Dianna Kidd
- Soldier boy by Anthony Hill
These books, whilst not only incorporating important factors of ‘family struggle’, present for the average reader interesting and easy to understand fiction. They also tackle several main issues head on, except for “Two hands together”. This novel’s main theme involves the bigotry against “black man” syndrome, a common fault numerous Australians possess.
“Looking for Alibrandi” is a story of a young woman struggling to accept her cultural beliefs, whilst along the way discovering her long lost father (a result of single parenting). It deals with various issues such as teenage suicide, multiculturalism and personal acceptance. By the conclusion of the story, the main character Josephine manages to find inner contentment, along with a boyfriend and completion of her HSC exams. This book more than any other, compacts several of today’s prevalent issues in one concise volume, and has had great impact on the adolescents in our contemporary society.
“Two hands together” primarily revolves around bigotry in all forms, against people ‘not like us’. In this book it is colour or racial bigotry, for example the father figure of the family betrays the aboriginals as uncivilized and trouble makers. Along the way the story further develops a domineering father character, who remembers past glory on the ‘footy’ field (again an Australian institution). He constantly displays a prejudice and discriminative attitude towards the Aboriginal family residing next door. It also introduces various issues dealing with the children and family as a whole. This remains the situation until a near family tragedy brings them together. The bigotry aspects in “Two hands together” are relevant in Australian society even in this day, as age bigotry and racism are huge issues for many Australians.
“Soldier boy” presents an interesting read at first, but unfortunately it masks quite a few subliminal messages and requires several re-readings to clarify the entire message. In a nutshell this book deals with Australians in the 114 era, the intense patriotism that ‘Ocker’ Australians are so noted for, a family’s love for its treasured members and the shame they experience when the father is refused acceptance into the army.
Thus, in today’s society several prevalent issues surround the ‘family’ tag that these books combat. Racism; bigotry, shame (or not fitting in), depression and last but not least the Australian ‘Ocker’ icon.
In today’s multicultural society a large amount of racism and bigotry still exists. Although the situation has greatly improved over time it still a concrete issue, especially for minority races or more bluntly; any race that doesn’t have white skin or wasn’t born in Australia, (war of the clans). Due to the vast number of different races and religions in Australia, there are constant cultural clashes. However, two of the books dealt with this topic and evident problem. Both “Looking for Alibrandi” and “Two hands together” acknowledged these issues, and the compounded effect on the family unit as a whole. For example in both books, the family dinners and meals are a shared and emphasised point. These small hints give the reader’s a message and issues to deliberate, whilst engrossed in the plot.
When discussing shame, it must be approached from a different viewpoint. Shame is everywhere in this day and age, and not just in respect to familial ties. Children and adolescents are taught shame at an early age, largely through constant bombardment of the media about the size of one’s body, or how one looks. It is therefore only natural that children of ethnic background feel shame towards both their upbringing and their own ‘roots’ and customs. This ‘shame’ was discussed at length in the book “Looking for Alibrandi” and example is when Josie stated, “ill run one day. Run for my life. To be free and think for myself. Not as an Australian and not as an Italian and not as in between. Ill run to be emancipated. If my society will let me”. As this theme is discussed in depth, it brings the reader to further understanding of the nature of this particular ‘beastie’ situation.
It is without a doubt that some children, of even Caucasian parentage feel shame towards their own ‘roots’, this of course leads to familial separation and a lessening of the family ties that ethnic families tend to enjoy. Caucasians as a whole generally are less ‘family’ minded than their ethnic brothers and sisters.
‘Ocker’, the word so despised by most Australian’s whether of Caucasian parentage or not. In today’s world forum all Australians are usually viewed as being slightly or more Ocker. Soldier boy would be most prevalent for the ‘Ockers’ of Australia. Reading the book it is easy to visualize the slow drawl as the characters spoke; with the usual bland ocker remarks like ‘she’ll be right mate’. On the world stage Australians as a people are generally seen as being a slightly backward people (hence the term ocker), and in fact ockers are an actual Australian institution celebrated in some parts of the country, usually rural.
It is without doubt that in today’s Australian society, family roots are gradually dissipating for various reasons. Unemployment, single parenting, shame for ethnic parents and racism and bigotry are all signalling huge problems for Australian society for families in general.
It is therefore gratifying to see that these books in question went along way to help resolving these issues or making reader understand they are no alone in the bounds of the storylines. It is often said that the best fiction is usually derived partly from the truth; therefore it can only be surmise that the authors of these particular books had knowledge of the various issues that the texts dealt with tackled.
Young readers are both informed of today’s current and long standing various issues, and are given likely answers to the leading questions that they may face. In these instances young reasons are possibly more open minded reading about the possible issues that they may face, rather than hearing about it through friends or indeed other relatives.
Family problems are a huge concern in this day and age, with the growing age gap, and indeed ageing population that Australia suffers. It’s rather poor taste that a lot of younger people are having to suffer problems such as ethnic differentially, coping with being bigoted against; having racism thrust upon them (from old family ‘wounds’) as well as the myriad of problems that the media forces children of today’s generation have to face; such as obesity, teenage suicide, drugs, peer pressure and such to name just a few that where all dealt with in the relevant texts.
Familial problems start to derive in school where the bullies are always prevalent. Even in adulthood, still seeing the bullies and bigots, usually commanding positions, which usually demand a form of respect. No doubt most people can relate to some of these problems in some form or another whether intentional or by design, although it’s remarkable to note that today’s generation of children’s literature, and even yesteryear’s generation of children’s authors give advice to younger readers in subtle ways that the children can indeed understand and relate to themselves or through their friends.
Very rarely do children heed their own parent(s) warnings and fears and certainly not at all in all three of the texts reviewed. Children and adolescents seem these days to have an inner understanding of ‘what is lacking’ in their particular situation, whether it’s because of ethnic or racial problems, or single parenthood, or parents being unemployed, or even for that matter overly employed or work drawing them away from home on a regular basis, such as the father form “Two Hands Together”. Therefore the parent(s) are not spending enough quality time with their children. Children seem to be almost instinctive about what is occurring in their own little world. Problems in the media and what the media shows to young children seems to ground them early in childhood for ‘the perfect’ childhood dream life. A few sit-com series comes to mind such as The Simpson’s can lead children to believe that unruly behaviour is the acceptable norm. This of course, compounded with the informational glut that as a society we face often leads children to believe what they see on television is actually a correct emulation of ‘real life’ as opposed to the fantasy they are in actuality viewing.
It’s rather obvious that this main factor, along with computer games, and the school system’s erosion have gradually led to children not getting the correct moral grounding that is needed for future living, this obviousness is enforced by looking at statistical figures in respects to crime rates versus single parent families, and crime statistics in respects to children having virtually nil family life. The conclusion is obviously that a familial process is important in the proper grounding of one’s life, and children seem to be getting the necessary information from the wrong sources e.g. Television, computer games and the like. Authors such as those of “Looking for Alibrandi” know this and write their books accordingly in a entertaining and easily relatable format.
Certainly, Children’s literature seems to be the only medium at this current time where family relationships regardless of race/colour/creed are actually important enough. And is a medium that children can get a viable grounding in the morals that they will need to further themselves as people, without the violence and bloodlust that we have all come to expect from other media avenues. Even though it cannot be unnoticed that some literature does go beyond the typical bounds and leads imagination of the reader to images or conclusions that in the end could have a everlasting affect on the book in question. For example the burning of a dog (The Gathering) in an effort to send a message to the character and reader that life is not a game.
It is important to note that even today ethnic, families seem to have more of an impact on children than their Caucasian counterparts. Ethnic children seem to appreciate, within the boundary of society’s current situation, the importance of familial ties. This can be derived from a point Josephine made “I will sit between them and be a link and ill fight with all my might to see that nothing tears my family apart”. This is due largely in part to the ethnic mentality in regards to the viability of studying, thus an ethnic child tends to read more, and read more for pleasure, thus gaining the moral ground work and moral fibre that is needed. This is compared to their Caucasian counterparts; who are largely discouraged from reading for pleasure.
Australia is and always will be a multicultural society, teeming with life that originated from around the globe, and yet gradually the entire family process seems to be withering and dying each and every year. Although most children’s books are written in a form for marketing purposes, usually with today’s ‘top issues’ intertwined in the plot. It is important to note that the family process is indeed eroding before our very eyes. Yet, somewhere there is light that seems to be pointing to the moralistic direction children should be facing. Recourses
- Two hands together by Dianna Kidd
- Soldier boy by Anthony Hill
- Australian Bureau of statistics
· poll of June 00
Mind that the sample papers like The family has continued to be the primary setting for many children’s books of integrity presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Australia being the multicultural society that it is; faces a wealth of both problems and assets, from different foods originating from all over the world, to various religious beliefs. This is both a blessing and a curse for Australians. Children’s authors have strived to combat the problem by writing about everyday problems, in a language that children and adolescents can comprehend. The main problem of Australian society is, and has always been ‘the family unit’. Whether through bigotry and racism (“Two hands together” by Dianna Kidd), shame (“Looking for Alibrandi” by Melina Marchetta), and assets that Australian society is indeed renowned for Patriotism, Ocker-ism and ‘the Australian way’ (“Solider boy” by Anthony Hill).
Children in today’s informational glut are faced with more problems than ever before. Television, ‘the internet’, computer games all strive to take away time that was once considered ‘quality family time’. As a consequence, it is refreshing to note that children’s books tackle relevant issues that most children and adolescents face in today’s busy lifestyle.
Reviewed texts that revolve around such significant contemporary themes, include
- Looking for Alibrandi by Melina Marchetta
- Two hands together by Dianna Kidd
- Soldier boy by Anthony Hill
These books, whilst not only incorporating important factors of ‘family struggle’, present for the average reader interesting and easy to understand fiction. They also tackle several main issues head on, except for “Two hands together”. This novel’s main theme involves the bigotry against “black man” syndrome, a common fault numerous Australians possess.
“Looking for Alibrandi” is a story of a young woman struggling to accept her cultural beliefs, whilst along the way discovering her long lost father (a result of single parenting). It deals with various issues such as teenage suicide, multiculturalism and personal acceptance. By the conclusion of the story, the main character Josephine manages to find inner contentment, along with a boyfriend and completion of her HSC exams. This book more than any other, compacts several of today’s prevalent issues in one concise volume, and has had great impact on the adolescents in our contemporary society.
“Two hands together” primarily revolves around bigotry in all forms, against people ‘not like us’. In this book it is colour or racial bigotry, for example the father figure of the family betrays the aboriginals as uncivilized and trouble makers. Along the way the story further develops a domineering father character, who remembers past glory on the ‘footy’ field (again an Australian institution). He constantly displays a prejudice and discriminative attitude towards the Aboriginal family residing next door. It also introduces various issues dealing with the children and family as a whole. This remains the situation until a near family tragedy brings them together. The bigotry aspects in “Two hands together” are relevant in Australian society even in this day, as age bigotry and racism are huge issues for many Australians.
“Soldier boy” presents an interesting read at first, but unfortunately it masks quite a few subliminal messages and requires several re-readings to clarify the entire message. In a nutshell this book deals with Australians in the 114 era, the intense patriotism that ‘Ocker’ Australians are so noted for, a family’s love for its treasured members and the shame they experience when the father is refused acceptance into the army.
Thus, in today’s society several prevalent issues surround the ‘family’ tag that these books combat. Racism; bigotry, shame (or not fitting in), depression and last but not least the Australian ‘Ocker’ icon.
In today’s multicultural society a large amount of racism and bigotry still exists. Although the situation has greatly improved over time it still a concrete issue, especially for minority races or more bluntly; any race that doesn’t have white skin or wasn’t born in Australia, (war of the clans). Due to the vast number of different races and religions in Australia, there are constant cultural clashes. However, two of the books dealt with this topic and evident problem. Both “Looking for Alibrandi” and “Two hands together” acknowledged these issues, and the compounded effect on the family unit as a whole. For example in both books, the family dinners and meals are a shared and emphasised point. These small hints give the reader’s a message and issues to deliberate, whilst engrossed in the plot.
When discussing shame, it must be approached from a different viewpoint. Shame is everywhere in this day and age, and not just in respect to familial ties. Children and adolescents are taught shame at an early age, largely through constant bombardment of the media about the size of one’s body, or how one looks. It is therefore only natural that children of ethnic background feel shame towards both their upbringing and their own ‘roots’ and customs. This ‘shame’ was discussed at length in the book “Looking for Alibrandi” and example is when Josie stated, “ill run one day. Run for my life. To be free and think for myself. Not as an Australian and not as an Italian and not as in between. Ill run to be emancipated. If my society will let me”. As this theme is discussed in depth, it brings the reader to further understanding of the nature of this particular ‘beastie’ situation.
It is without a doubt that some children, of even Caucasian parentage feel shame towards their own ‘roots’, this of course leads to familial separation and a lessening of the family ties that ethnic families tend to enjoy. Caucasians as a whole generally are less ‘family’ minded than their ethnic brothers and sisters.
‘Ocker’, the word so despised by most Australian’s whether of Caucasian parentage or not. In today’s world forum all Australians are usually viewed as being slightly or more Ocker. Soldier boy would be most prevalent for the ‘Ockers’ of Australia. Reading the book it is easy to visualize the slow drawl as the characters spoke; with the usual bland ocker remarks like ‘she’ll be right mate’. On the world stage Australians as a people are generally seen as being a slightly backward people (hence the term ocker), and in fact ockers are an actual Australian institution celebrated in some parts of the country, usually rural.
It is without doubt that in today’s Australian society, family roots are gradually dissipating for various reasons. Unemployment, single parenting, shame for ethnic parents and racism and bigotry are all signalling huge problems for Australian society for families in general.
It is therefore gratifying to see that these books in question went along way to help resolving these issues or making reader understand they are no alone in the bounds of the storylines. It is often said that the best fiction is usually derived partly from the truth; therefore it can only be surmise that the authors of these particular books had knowledge of the various issues that the texts dealt with tackled.
Young readers are both informed of today’s current and long standing various issues, and are given likely answers to the leading questions that they may face. In these instances young reasons are possibly more open minded reading about the possible issues that they may face, rather than hearing about it through friends or indeed other relatives.
Family problems are a huge concern in this day and age, with the growing age gap, and indeed ageing population that Australia suffers. It’s rather poor taste that a lot of younger people are having to suffer problems such as ethnic differentially, coping with being bigoted against; having racism thrust upon them (from old family ‘wounds’) as well as the myriad of problems that the media forces children of today’s generation have to face; such as obesity, teenage suicide, drugs, peer pressure and such to name just a few that where all dealt with in the relevant texts.
Familial problems start to derive in school where the bullies are always prevalent. Even in adulthood, still seeing the bullies and bigots, usually commanding positions, which usually demand a form of respect. No doubt most people can relate to some of these problems in some form or another whether intentional or by design, although it’s remarkable to note that today’s generation of children’s literature, and even yesteryear’s generation of children’s authors give advice to younger readers in subtle ways that the children can indeed understand and relate to themselves or through their friends.
Very rarely do children heed their own parent(s) warnings and fears and certainly not at all in all three of the texts reviewed. Children and adolescents seem these days to have an inner understanding of ‘what is lacking’ in their particular situation, whether it’s because of ethnic or racial problems, or single parenthood, or parents being unemployed, or even for that matter overly employed or work drawing them away from home on a regular basis, such as the father form “Two Hands Together”. Therefore the parent(s) are not spending enough quality time with their children. Children seem to be almost instinctive about what is occurring in their own little world. Problems in the media and what the media shows to young children seems to ground them early in childhood for ‘the perfect’ childhood dream life. A few sit-com series comes to mind such as The Simpson’s can lead children to believe that unruly behaviour is the acceptable norm. This of course, compounded with the informational glut that as a society we face often leads children to believe what they see on television is actually a correct emulation of ‘real life’ as opposed to the fantasy they are in actuality viewing.
It’s rather obvious that this main factor, along with computer games, and the school system’s erosion have gradually led to children not getting the correct moral grounding that is needed for future living, this obviousness is enforced by looking at statistical figures in respects to crime rates versus single parent families, and crime statistics in respects to children having virtually nil family life. The conclusion is obviously that a familial process is important in the proper grounding of one’s life, and children seem to be getting the necessary information from the wrong sources e.g. Television, computer games and the like. Authors such as those of “Looking for Alibrandi” know this and write their books accordingly in a entertaining and easily relatable format.
Certainly, Children’s literature seems to be the only medium at this current time where family relationships regardless of race/colour/creed are actually important enough. And is a medium that children can get a viable grounding in the morals that they will need to further themselves as people, without the violence and bloodlust that we have all come to expect from other media avenues. Even though it cannot be unnoticed that some literature does go beyond the typical bounds and leads imagination of the reader to images or conclusions that in the end could have a everlasting affect on the book in question. For example the burning of a dog (The Gathering) in an effort to send a message to the character and reader that life is not a game.
It is important to note that even today ethnic, families seem to have more of an impact on children than their Caucasian counterparts. Ethnic children seem to appreciate, within the boundary of society’s current situation, the importance of familial ties. This can be derived from a point Josephine made “I will sit between them and be a link and ill fight with all my might to see that nothing tears my family apart”. This is due largely in part to the ethnic mentality in regards to the viability of studying, thus an ethnic child tends to read more, and read more for pleasure, thus gaining the moral ground work and moral fibre that is needed. This is compared to their Caucasian counterparts; who are largely discouraged from reading for pleasure.
Australia is and always will be a multicultural society, teeming with life that originated from around the globe, and yet gradually the entire family process seems to be withering and dying each and every year. Although most children’s books are written in a form for marketing purposes, usually with today’s ‘top issues’ intertwined in the plot. It is important to note that the family process is indeed eroding before our very eyes. Yet, somewhere there is light that seems to be pointing to the moralistic direction children should be facing. Recourses
- Two hands together by Dianna Kidd
- Soldier boy by Anthony Hill
- Australian Bureau of statistics
· poll of June 00
Mind that the sample papers like The family has continued to be the primary setting for many children’s books of integrity presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Tuesday, July 3, 2012
Barthelme's Time Machine
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Hilmar Örn �skarsson Bókmenntir og myndlist
Time Machine
A Look at Barthelme’s “Sentence”
A brief glance at Barthelme’s “Sentence” might lead one to the conclusion that the story is simple and pure non-sense; completely devoid of all meaning and value in every respect. With such a glance one might even go so far as to call it gibberish � a total waste of the writer’s time and resources and then most definetely a waste of mine. However, a deeper and closer examination would without a doubt lead one to an entirely diffirent, more rewarding conclusion � there are in fact (at least) two highly important “factors of sense” to be found in Barthelme’s “Sentence.” One concerns the deceptive nature of literature as such and the other, to put it as simply as possible, tackles a question of time. I will discuss both of these here � however, for reasons soon to be known, my main emphasis is going to be on that second factor regarding time.
There is a strong deconstructive element in the “Sentence” and it’s deconstruction is primarily aimed, in a broad sense via literature, at language. Barthelme’s story has an important twist though in that it’s deconstructing does not take place solely on an aesthetic level or a theoretical one. In a sense it launches its attacks from both of these standpoints. If we were to break this argument up into smaller units we could say that on the aesthetic level attacker number one is the story itself. “Sentence” is essentially a work of art and as such dismantles itself to reveal what “makes it tick” so to speak and one might then define those shorter stories within the story as subsequent (smaller) attackers from the same army, for example the story about the married couple or the description of Robert Houdin’s Fantastic Orange Tree. This latter example becomes in fact a rather well accomplished flirt with the deception in Barthelme’s “Sentence” - being so completely shameless in it’s lying. On the other hand we have the theoretical side of the “Sentence” � it’s strong awareness of reader-response criticism and it’s somewhat scientific or at least methodical approach to dissecting itself.
thus, considering everything carefully, in the sweet light of the
ceremonial axes, in the run-mad skimble-skamble of information
sickness, we must make a decision as to wether we should proceed,
or go back, in the latter case enjoying the pathos of eradication, in
the former case reading an erotic advertisment
Here we have a perfect example of the forementioned reader-response criticism awareness. In this the “Sentence” not only assumes a reader (which can of course be said of many other and much older literary works) but also assumes that this reader can be a somewhat “unstable” or perhaps fleeting phenomenon. This concluding segment of the story can be viewed as a fair example of the latter
and Ludwig falls through the Tugendhat House into the history
of man-made objects; a disappointment, to be sure, but it reminds
us that the sentence itself is a man-made object, not the one we
wanted of course, but still a construction of man, a structure to be
valued for its weakness, as opposed to the strength of stones
And here we have the bottom line; the “Sentence” or any sentence for that matter (and both literature and language as such along with them) is weak and nobody should try to define it in any other way. Language is a “man-made object” and is therefore subject to the same completely unavoidable human flaws as man himself. However, we are still supposed to treasure the sentence for what its worth, even though it does not posess “the strength of stones” so Barthelme’s story shouldn’t be considered as pessimistic. Language has value; just simply not the value man is normally inclined to grant it.
Turning then to the above mentioned question of time. Barthelme’s “Sentence” is in fact primarily concerned with time and furthermore one could say that it deals with this issue mostly on a philosophical level rather than a literary one. In this respect one could even go so far as to call the story’s literary value a nice but never the less unavoidable by-product. There are a number of allusions to time itself to be found in the “Sentence” � some of whom are quite obvious but there are also a few (in a sense) hidden and more complex allusions.
Or a long sentence moving at a certain pace down the page aiming
for the bottom […] where it can rest, or stop for a moment to think
about the questions raised by its own (temporary) existance, which
ends when the page is turned, or the sentence falls out of the mind
that holds it (temporarily) in some kind of an embrace
It is clear that one understands this opening segment of the “Sentence” more fully when one has read the story through to its end although both “opening segment” and “end” don’t do justice to the story’s logic so to speak � the “Sentence” in fact does not begin nor end anywhere. Furthermore it is not supposed to begin nor end, it is supposed to take place beyond time so to speak, since its main subject matter is time itself. What Barthelme attempts is a sort of neutralization of time, and thus tries to create some, although small and vulnerable, room to say what is in fact impossible to say about time. Regarding this, one can for example mention his use of brackets around the direct allusions to time, thereby giving these allusions a sort of “beside the point” feeling. I think this is absolutely necessary � to receive the story’s full impact the reader must be fairly unaware of its hidden agenda so to speak. The “Sentence” points the reader to where the beast lies but never goes so near as to wake it up beacause then it would most certainly be ripped to pieces before the reader had even had a chance to figure out what was being pointed at.
In this respect Barthelme fails and of course can not but fail (the neutralization of time already presupposes its existance) but his “Sentence” is highly successful in other ways. It does say a certain “something” although nobody could ever explain in detail what that certain “something” is. It manages to raise questions concerning the nature of time - questions a reader might not have contemplated until reading Barthelme’s “Sentence” � questions that may or may not lead one to conclude that time is in itself a cold and even brutal phenomenon. Time doesn’t fly. Time never flies. This conception of time, like language “is a man-made object” and furthermore it is perhaps a conception that man can not live without. It is perhaps absolutely essential for human beings to feel that they have some sort of control where time is concerned even though this control is for the most part fabricated by man himself. A fabrication needed to prevent “a condition so damaging to real-time social intercourse of any kind.” It is clear that this discussion of Barthelme’s “Sentence” has been drifting (somewhat aimlessly I’ll admit) from its original deconstructive reasoning to a more existential one. However, I think this shift in theoretical emphasis is a logical one. Realizing that language is essentially without meaning and that time is simply there and constant may be the quickest way to experience, first-hand, existential anxiety and despair.
Gertrude Stein is an ideal example of an author who values the weakness of language in this “Barthelmenian” sense. Her Tender Buttons are well aware of the flaws that inevitably taint all “man-made” objects and in this particular work she is also quite often concerned with questions of time. True, she doesn’t answer these questions, like Barthelme, on a somewhat theoretical basis but then again theory aims toward meaning - Tender Buttons on the other hand, and in a sense, denies its existance. A look at Stein
A WAIST
[…]
A piece of crystal. A change, in a change that is remarkable there
is no reason to say that there was a time.
[…]
ROASTBEEF
[…]
All the time that there is use there is use and any time there is a
surface there is a surface, and every time there is an exception
there is an exception and every time there is a division there is a
dividing. Any time there is a surface there is a surface and every
time there is a suggestion there is a suggestion and every time
there is silence there is silence and every time that is languid there
is that there then and not oftener, not always, not particular, tender
and changing and external and central and surrounded and singular
and simple and the same and the surface and the circle and the
shine and the succor and the white and the same and the better and
the red and the same and the centre and the yellow and the tender
and the better, and altogether.
[…]
Barthelme’s “Sentence” and this latter example from Stein’s Tender Buttons may of course be considered as somewhat similar projects. In the second sentence of this latter example Stein “breaks the rules” in two important ways. Firstly, this said sentence is far from coherent and, perhaps more importantly, it also refuses to be concluded but goes on and on via endless “and’s” and is in that respect very similar to Barthelme’s story. Stein lacks Barthelme’s theoretical or scientific support (for reasons already known) and the “Sentence” is of course considerably longer but I think the basic thought is still the same. We can say then (for the purposes of this discussion) that Stein, with her Tender Buttons, provides the interior decorations for Barthelme’s Time Machine half a century before it was built.
Sources
Barthelme, Donald. 170. “Sentence” - Postmodern American Fiction (ed. Paula Geyh, Fred G. Leebron, Andrew Levy.) W.W. Norton & Company. 18. New York.
Stein, Gertrude. 114. Tender Buttons, http//www.bartleby.com/140
Mind that the sample papers like Barthelme's Time Machine presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Hilmar Örn �skarsson Bókmenntir og myndlist
Time Machine
A Look at Barthelme’s “Sentence”
A brief glance at Barthelme’s “Sentence” might lead one to the conclusion that the story is simple and pure non-sense; completely devoid of all meaning and value in every respect. With such a glance one might even go so far as to call it gibberish � a total waste of the writer’s time and resources and then most definetely a waste of mine. However, a deeper and closer examination would without a doubt lead one to an entirely diffirent, more rewarding conclusion � there are in fact (at least) two highly important “factors of sense” to be found in Barthelme’s “Sentence.” One concerns the deceptive nature of literature as such and the other, to put it as simply as possible, tackles a question of time. I will discuss both of these here � however, for reasons soon to be known, my main emphasis is going to be on that second factor regarding time.
There is a strong deconstructive element in the “Sentence” and it’s deconstruction is primarily aimed, in a broad sense via literature, at language. Barthelme’s story has an important twist though in that it’s deconstructing does not take place solely on an aesthetic level or a theoretical one. In a sense it launches its attacks from both of these standpoints. If we were to break this argument up into smaller units we could say that on the aesthetic level attacker number one is the story itself. “Sentence” is essentially a work of art and as such dismantles itself to reveal what “makes it tick” so to speak and one might then define those shorter stories within the story as subsequent (smaller) attackers from the same army, for example the story about the married couple or the description of Robert Houdin’s Fantastic Orange Tree. This latter example becomes in fact a rather well accomplished flirt with the deception in Barthelme’s “Sentence” - being so completely shameless in it’s lying. On the other hand we have the theoretical side of the “Sentence” � it’s strong awareness of reader-response criticism and it’s somewhat scientific or at least methodical approach to dissecting itself.
thus, considering everything carefully, in the sweet light of the
ceremonial axes, in the run-mad skimble-skamble of information
sickness, we must make a decision as to wether we should proceed,
or go back, in the latter case enjoying the pathos of eradication, in
the former case reading an erotic advertisment
Here we have a perfect example of the forementioned reader-response criticism awareness. In this the “Sentence” not only assumes a reader (which can of course be said of many other and much older literary works) but also assumes that this reader can be a somewhat “unstable” or perhaps fleeting phenomenon. This concluding segment of the story can be viewed as a fair example of the latter
and Ludwig falls through the Tugendhat House into the history
of man-made objects; a disappointment, to be sure, but it reminds
us that the sentence itself is a man-made object, not the one we
wanted of course, but still a construction of man, a structure to be
valued for its weakness, as opposed to the strength of stones
And here we have the bottom line; the “Sentence” or any sentence for that matter (and both literature and language as such along with them) is weak and nobody should try to define it in any other way. Language is a “man-made object” and is therefore subject to the same completely unavoidable human flaws as man himself. However, we are still supposed to treasure the sentence for what its worth, even though it does not posess “the strength of stones” so Barthelme’s story shouldn’t be considered as pessimistic. Language has value; just simply not the value man is normally inclined to grant it.
Turning then to the above mentioned question of time. Barthelme’s “Sentence” is in fact primarily concerned with time and furthermore one could say that it deals with this issue mostly on a philosophical level rather than a literary one. In this respect one could even go so far as to call the story’s literary value a nice but never the less unavoidable by-product. There are a number of allusions to time itself to be found in the “Sentence” � some of whom are quite obvious but there are also a few (in a sense) hidden and more complex allusions.
Or a long sentence moving at a certain pace down the page aiming
for the bottom […] where it can rest, or stop for a moment to think
about the questions raised by its own (temporary) existance, which
ends when the page is turned, or the sentence falls out of the mind
that holds it (temporarily) in some kind of an embrace
It is clear that one understands this opening segment of the “Sentence” more fully when one has read the story through to its end although both “opening segment” and “end” don’t do justice to the story’s logic so to speak � the “Sentence” in fact does not begin nor end anywhere. Furthermore it is not supposed to begin nor end, it is supposed to take place beyond time so to speak, since its main subject matter is time itself. What Barthelme attempts is a sort of neutralization of time, and thus tries to create some, although small and vulnerable, room to say what is in fact impossible to say about time. Regarding this, one can for example mention his use of brackets around the direct allusions to time, thereby giving these allusions a sort of “beside the point” feeling. I think this is absolutely necessary � to receive the story’s full impact the reader must be fairly unaware of its hidden agenda so to speak. The “Sentence” points the reader to where the beast lies but never goes so near as to wake it up beacause then it would most certainly be ripped to pieces before the reader had even had a chance to figure out what was being pointed at.
In this respect Barthelme fails and of course can not but fail (the neutralization of time already presupposes its existance) but his “Sentence” is highly successful in other ways. It does say a certain “something” although nobody could ever explain in detail what that certain “something” is. It manages to raise questions concerning the nature of time - questions a reader might not have contemplated until reading Barthelme’s “Sentence” � questions that may or may not lead one to conclude that time is in itself a cold and even brutal phenomenon. Time doesn’t fly. Time never flies. This conception of time, like language “is a man-made object” and furthermore it is perhaps a conception that man can not live without. It is perhaps absolutely essential for human beings to feel that they have some sort of control where time is concerned even though this control is for the most part fabricated by man himself. A fabrication needed to prevent “a condition so damaging to real-time social intercourse of any kind.” It is clear that this discussion of Barthelme’s “Sentence” has been drifting (somewhat aimlessly I’ll admit) from its original deconstructive reasoning to a more existential one. However, I think this shift in theoretical emphasis is a logical one. Realizing that language is essentially without meaning and that time is simply there and constant may be the quickest way to experience, first-hand, existential anxiety and despair.
Gertrude Stein is an ideal example of an author who values the weakness of language in this “Barthelmenian” sense. Her Tender Buttons are well aware of the flaws that inevitably taint all “man-made” objects and in this particular work she is also quite often concerned with questions of time. True, she doesn’t answer these questions, like Barthelme, on a somewhat theoretical basis but then again theory aims toward meaning - Tender Buttons on the other hand, and in a sense, denies its existance. A look at Stein
A WAIST
[…]
A piece of crystal. A change, in a change that is remarkable there
is no reason to say that there was a time.
[…]
ROASTBEEF
[…]
All the time that there is use there is use and any time there is a
surface there is a surface, and every time there is an exception
there is an exception and every time there is a division there is a
dividing. Any time there is a surface there is a surface and every
time there is a suggestion there is a suggestion and every time
there is silence there is silence and every time that is languid there
is that there then and not oftener, not always, not particular, tender
and changing and external and central and surrounded and singular
and simple and the same and the surface and the circle and the
shine and the succor and the white and the same and the better and
the red and the same and the centre and the yellow and the tender
and the better, and altogether.
[…]
Barthelme’s “Sentence” and this latter example from Stein’s Tender Buttons may of course be considered as somewhat similar projects. In the second sentence of this latter example Stein “breaks the rules” in two important ways. Firstly, this said sentence is far from coherent and, perhaps more importantly, it also refuses to be concluded but goes on and on via endless “and’s” and is in that respect very similar to Barthelme’s story. Stein lacks Barthelme’s theoretical or scientific support (for reasons already known) and the “Sentence” is of course considerably longer but I think the basic thought is still the same. We can say then (for the purposes of this discussion) that Stein, with her Tender Buttons, provides the interior decorations for Barthelme’s Time Machine half a century before it was built.
Sources
Barthelme, Donald. 170. “Sentence” - Postmodern American Fiction (ed. Paula Geyh, Fred G. Leebron, Andrew Levy.) W.W. Norton & Company. 18. New York.
Stein, Gertrude. 114. Tender Buttons, http//www.bartleby.com/140
Mind that the sample papers like Barthelme's Time Machine presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Tuesday, June 5, 2012
Rates of reactions between HCL and magnesium ribbon
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like Rates of reactions between HCL and magnesium ribbon even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like Rates of reactions between HCL and magnesium ribbon in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
Rates of reactions between HCL and magnesium ribbon
Aim
I plan to investigate the effect of concentration of acid, in the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon. The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how fast the reaction takes place. It is important to know that a rapid reaction is completed in a short period of time. Some reactions are very fast, for example; the formation of silver chloride precipitates when silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid solutions are mixed. In this investigation I will test different concentrations of acid reacting with magnesium.
/Plan
To investigate what effect concentration of sodium thiosulphate has on the rate of reaction. The volume of HCL needs to be kept at 10cm constantly each time. Start with 60cm of sodium thiosulphate. Last reaction will have only 10cm of sodium thiosulphate.
Reactions will be completed when the x disappears, for the timing to stop. Three reactions will be made for each test; this is done to gain the different averages.
Introduction
I will be conducting an experiment on the rate of reaction for my GCSE coursework. I will be doing this coursework for a period of two weeks. We will be reacting sodium thiosulphate with hydrochloric acid. I will be investigating the effects had on rate of reaction.
When sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric are mixed, a yellow precept of sulphur is produced. The solution becomes increasingly difficult to see through as more and more sulphur is formed.
Prediction
My prediction is that as the concentration of the hydrochloric acid increases, the time taken for the magnesium to disappear decreases. I predict that when the concentration of the hydrochloric acid doubles, the rate of the reaction doubles.
Background Knowledge
Rate is a measure of how fast or slow something is. For example, Silver Chloride precipitating (this is a very fast reaction) and Concrete setting (it may take a couple of days for concrete to harden). Rate is a measure of the change that happens in a single unit of time. Any suitable unit of time can be used - a second, a minute, an hour and even a day.
To find the rate of reaction, you should measure The amount of reactant used up per unit of time or the amount of a product produced per unit of time.
We are going to do an experiment on the rate of reaction. We are using acid and magnesium strips to test the rate of reaction.
Rates of reaction can be varied by a number of factors
? The concentration of the acid in which the magnesium is placed,
? The temperature of the acid and
? The size of the surface area of the magnesium strip.
Why rate changes with concentration If the concentration of the acid is increased, the reaction goes faster.
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. In dilute acid, there are not so many acid particles. This means there is not much chance of an acid particle hitting a magnesium atom.
. Here the acid is more concentrated - there are more acid particles in it. There is now more chance of a successful collision occurring.
The more successful collisions there are the faster the reaction.
This idea also explains why the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid slows down as time goes on
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. At the start, there are plenty of magnesium atoms and acid particles. But they get used up during successful collisions.
. After a time, there are fewer magnesium atoms, and the acid is less concentrated. So the reaction slows down.
Why rate changes with the temperature At low temperatures particles of reacting substances do not have much energy. However, when the substances are heated, the particles take in energy. This causes them to move faster and collide more often. The collisions have more energy, so more of them are successful. Therefore the rate of reaction increases.
Why rate increases with surface area The reaction between the magnesium and acid is much faster when the metal is powdered
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. Acid particles can collide only with magnesium atoms on the outside of the metal.
. When the metal is powdered, many more atoms are exposed. So there is a greater chance of successful collisions.
For my experiment my independent variable will be the concentration of the acid. I chose this as my independent variable as I feel this is the safest and easiest way to carry out the experiment. If I was to choose the temperature of the acid as my independent variable, and if I were to heat the acid too much it may boil and produce a corrosive gas, which would life threatening. It would be difficult to work out an accurate reading of the surface area if I was to choose the surface area as my independent variable.
Linking prediction to theory
Reaction rate and concentration.
The collision theory describes how the rate of reaction increases (the time taken for the magnesium ribbon to disappear when it is reacted with hydrochloric acid) when the concentration of HCL increases. As the reaction continues, the concentration of the reacting substances decreases and so does the rate of reaction. The reaction is speeded up if the number of collisions is increased. The higher the concentration of HCL you use, the less time it takes for the magnesium to disappear and so the rate reaction increases. If the activation energy is high only a small amount of particles will have enough energy to react so the reaction rate would be very small, however the activation energy is very low the number of particles with that amount of energy would be so high, so start, so the reaction rate would be higher.
Apparatus
Hydrochloric acid( mole)
Water(to dilute acid)
10ml testube
magnesium(cm long)
stop clock(sensitivity 1/10s)
beaker
In order to conduct any type of experiment, you need equipment. The equipment I used was a
Measuring Cylinder
Small measuring cylinder
Flask
beakers
Pad (marked with black cross) white cross
Timer
Method
To get the amount of magnesium and the amount of hydrochloric acid to use in the situation, we have to use an excess of acid so that all of the magnesium disappears.
An equation for the reaction
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Mg(s) + HCL(aq)Mgcl(aq) + H(g)
1mole moles 1mole 1mole
So we can say that one mole of magnesium reacts with moles of hydrochloric acid. Throughout the experiment, we diluted the acid solution using water, as we did this the concentration of the acid decreased. Then 8ml of acid and ml of water solution on the magnesium, measured time taken for magnesium to disappear using stop clock. Then 7ml of acid and ml of acid, repeated as above. This way the rate of reaction(the time taken for the magnesium to disappear) was measured accurately for a fair test.
Results
The results for the time taken for magnesium to disappear when it is placed in different concentrations of acid are summarised below.
Analysis of results
From the results in the table and the graph we can see a steady increase in the rate of reaction as the concentration of the acid decreases. This complies with my prediction. The graph shows that there is an increase in the rate of reaction as the concentration increases because the graph has its largest gradient or it is steepest at this point. When the graph was made into 1/time the result should have been a straight line graph but it did not turn out this way even though concentration~1/time. This 1/time graph could be wrong because of inaccurate results so there seems to be no relationship between the concentration graph and the 1/time graph. We can see from the rate of reaction graph that when the concentration roughly doubles from (1.8 moles to moles) the rate of the reaction doubles (from 5 to 60 seconds). Also we can see that as the reaction continues the concentration of the reactants decrease and so does the rate of the reaction as we can see the decreasing gradient on the graph steadily falling and coming to a stop when the reaction is complete and the magnesium has completely disappeared.
Conclusion
I can conclude that if you double the concentration of the acid the reaction rate would also double, this is because the ions are closer together in a concentrated solution. The closer together they are, the more often the ions collide. The more often they collide, the higher the chance of a reaction between the magnesium and the hydrochloric acid. Also because there are more particles in the solution which would increase the likelihood that they would hit the magnesium so the reaction rate would increase. The graph gives us a good device to prove that if you double the concentration the rate of reaction doubles. If you increase the number of particles in the solution it is more likely that they will collide more often. In the reaction, when the magnesium hit the acid, it fizzed and produced many bubbles it was silver in colour (which is one of magnesiums physical properties silvery
white metallic element), the activation energy of a particle gets higher with heat, the particles which have to have the activation energy are those particles which are moving, in the case of magnesium and hydrochloric acid, it is the hydrochloric acid particles which have to have the activation energy because they are the ones that are moving and bombarding the magnesium particles to produce magnesium chloride. The graph for 1/time had the form of an s curve and it did have some relationship with the other graph.
Conclusion
The experiments made were very successful and we had managed to complete the experiment fully and fairly.
The fastest reaction made was with no water, 60 cm of sodium this sulphate and 10 cm acid. This reaction is very fast with a time average of 44.1 seconds. The slowest reaction made was with 50 cm of water, 10 cm of sodium thiosulphate and 10-cm acid. This reaction was very slow with a time of 4,4.5 minutes in average. But this average time has mainly been made with the one anomalous result in a certain reaction. The reaction was stopped at 61.46, but the reaction was still not finished. It seemed that the chemicals in the flask had only reacted halfway, then it just stopped reacting.
Evaluation
There are many reasons why our results for the 1/time graph did not prove the point that concentration~1/time, such as
1. When the reaction takes place bubbles of H are given off, which might stay around the magnesium, which therefore reduces the surface area of the magnesium and so the acid cannot react properly so this affects the results.
. We could have controlled factors in the investigation better (e.g. the stirring of the solution because if this is not done properly it can lead to incorrect results).
. Using larger concentrations of acid would give a bigger more accurate conclusion instead of just using 10ml test tubes use 1litre test tubes, this way graphs would be more spaced out and give an accurate form or curve.
Interpretation and Evaluation
In this experiment I found out that many different factors including; Concentration, Temperature and Surface Area affect the rate of reaction. For the experiment I found out that the higher the concentration of the acid the quicker it takes to dissolve the magnesium. I know this because the more acid molecules that is in the beaker there is more chance of a successful collision to take place. Another factor that I learned is that the rate is constantly changing during the reaction because as time goes on there are fewer acid molecules. There are fewer acid molecules because when the acid reacts the same particle cannot react again, so there are less to end with than there are to start with. As time goes on the number of acid particle decrease so there is less chance of a successful reaction to take place.
Before I started the experiment I made up a prediction. I predicted that the more concentrated the acid solution the faster the magnesium and hydrochloric acid will react. I thought that this would happen because when there are more acid particles in the test tube the more chance there is of a successful collision. I was right in my prediction but I did not predict that the rate of reaction slows down as time goes on which did happen in my experiment.
Improvements
The experiments were handled fairly but it could have been even more fair. Because The reaction was finished when the black cross on the pad dissapeared and this is only seen by the naked eye. With the whole class doing this with different eye types, there is no exact fairness in the experiment.
Fairness in this issue can be found by using devices such as a light sensor. The light sensor will pass through the flask, of were an reaction is taking place to a reciever. When the light sensor can not reach the reciever, the timing will be stopped automatically. This will bring fairness to experiments to test all similar to rate of reaction.
Variables
INDEPENDANT VARIABLE My independent variable is the concentration of the acid.
CONTROLLED VARIABLE My controlled variables are the temperature of the acid, the size of the surface area of the magnesium, the volume of the acid/water solution and the length of the magnesium strip.
DEPENDANT VARIABLE My dependant variables are the volume of the magnesium and the mass of the magnesium.
Apparatus
Stop Clock - Water -
Acid - Test Tube rack -
Test Tube - Magnesium -
Ruler - Scissors -
Beaker - Measuring Cylinder -
Safety
Safety is a very important part of this experiment as we are working with a corrosive chemical that is very dangerous. When carrying out the experiment, be sure to wear safety goggles as we are working with acid. When measuring out the different concentrations of acid, be careful not to spill it onto your hands or clothing.
Method
To begin with, set up all the apparatus in a safe position. Then make up the different concentrations of acid. To do this, add a quantity of water to the acid.
Water (cm) Acid (cm) Molarity Total (cm)
0 5 1 5
5 0 0.8 5
10 15 0.6 5
15 10 0.4 5
0 5 0. 5
Pour 5cm of each molarity of acid into a test tube. Then drop in a cm strip of magnesium. As soon as the magnesium strip drops, start the stop clock. When the magnesium is no longer visible, stop the stop clock and record the time. When the magnesium strip is dropped in a gas appears and it gives off a hissing noise. We can work out the name of this gas by solving a simple equation
Hydrogen Chloride + Magnesium = Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen
HCL + Mg = MgCL + H
Or collect this gas and test it with the POP� test to identify it as Hydrogen.
Do this with each of the different molarities and repeat this again at least two more times to ensure that an accurate result is achieved.
BOILING TUBE
ACID OF DIFFERENT
MOLARITIES
MAGNESIUM
STRIP (CM)
BOILING TUBE
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE
(THE MAGNESIUM HAS REACTED
WITH THE ACID AND HAS
DISSAPPEARED)
I will record the results in a table under the following headings
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.
I will record the results in a graph under the following headings
T
I
M
E
(S
E
C)
MOLARITY OF SOLUTION
Prediction
I predict that the more concentrated the acid solution the faster the magnesium and hydrochloric acid will react. I think that this will happen because when there are more acid particles in the test tube the more chance there is of a successful collision
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. The particles in the liquid move around continually. Here an acid particle is about to collide with a magnesium atom.
. If the collision has enough energy, reaction takes place. Magnesium chloride and hydrogen are formed.
. If the collision does not have enough energy, no reaction occurs. The acid particle bounces away again.
Results
1st results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 5
0.8 5 6
0.6 5 11
0.4 5 516
0. 5 117
nd results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 4
0.8 5 40
0.6 5 6
0.4 5 67
0. 5 NO TIME
rd results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 6
0.8 5 8
0.6 5 61
0.4 5
0. 5 NO TIME
In some of the tests we had no time to complete them.
I also made a table for my average results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 5
0.8 5 8
0.6 5 85
0.4 5 8
0. 5 117
I only recorded this result once because we had only enough time to test it once.
Mind that the sample papers like Rates of reactions between HCL and magnesium ribbon presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Rates of reactions between HCL and magnesium ribbon
Aim
I plan to investigate the effect of concentration of acid, in the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon. The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how fast the reaction takes place. It is important to know that a rapid reaction is completed in a short period of time. Some reactions are very fast, for example; the formation of silver chloride precipitates when silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid solutions are mixed. In this investigation I will test different concentrations of acid reacting with magnesium.
/Plan
To investigate what effect concentration of sodium thiosulphate has on the rate of reaction. The volume of HCL needs to be kept at 10cm constantly each time. Start with 60cm of sodium thiosulphate. Last reaction will have only 10cm of sodium thiosulphate.
Reactions will be completed when the x disappears, for the timing to stop. Three reactions will be made for each test; this is done to gain the different averages.
Introduction
I will be conducting an experiment on the rate of reaction for my GCSE coursework. I will be doing this coursework for a period of two weeks. We will be reacting sodium thiosulphate with hydrochloric acid. I will be investigating the effects had on rate of reaction.
When sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric are mixed, a yellow precept of sulphur is produced. The solution becomes increasingly difficult to see through as more and more sulphur is formed.
Prediction
My prediction is that as the concentration of the hydrochloric acid increases, the time taken for the magnesium to disappear decreases. I predict that when the concentration of the hydrochloric acid doubles, the rate of the reaction doubles.
Background Knowledge
Rate is a measure of how fast or slow something is. For example, Silver Chloride precipitating (this is a very fast reaction) and Concrete setting (it may take a couple of days for concrete to harden). Rate is a measure of the change that happens in a single unit of time. Any suitable unit of time can be used - a second, a minute, an hour and even a day.
To find the rate of reaction, you should measure The amount of reactant used up per unit of time or the amount of a product produced per unit of time.
We are going to do an experiment on the rate of reaction. We are using acid and magnesium strips to test the rate of reaction.
Rates of reaction can be varied by a number of factors
? The concentration of the acid in which the magnesium is placed,
? The temperature of the acid and
? The size of the surface area of the magnesium strip.
Why rate changes with concentration If the concentration of the acid is increased, the reaction goes faster.
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. In dilute acid, there are not so many acid particles. This means there is not much chance of an acid particle hitting a magnesium atom.
. Here the acid is more concentrated - there are more acid particles in it. There is now more chance of a successful collision occurring.
The more successful collisions there are the faster the reaction.
This idea also explains why the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid slows down as time goes on
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. At the start, there are plenty of magnesium atoms and acid particles. But they get used up during successful collisions.
. After a time, there are fewer magnesium atoms, and the acid is less concentrated. So the reaction slows down.
Why rate changes with the temperature At low temperatures particles of reacting substances do not have much energy. However, when the substances are heated, the particles take in energy. This causes them to move faster and collide more often. The collisions have more energy, so more of them are successful. Therefore the rate of reaction increases.
Why rate increases with surface area The reaction between the magnesium and acid is much faster when the metal is powdered
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. Acid particles can collide only with magnesium atoms on the outside of the metal.
. When the metal is powdered, many more atoms are exposed. So there is a greater chance of successful collisions.
For my experiment my independent variable will be the concentration of the acid. I chose this as my independent variable as I feel this is the safest and easiest way to carry out the experiment. If I was to choose the temperature of the acid as my independent variable, and if I were to heat the acid too much it may boil and produce a corrosive gas, which would life threatening. It would be difficult to work out an accurate reading of the surface area if I was to choose the surface area as my independent variable.
Linking prediction to theory
Reaction rate and concentration.
The collision theory describes how the rate of reaction increases (the time taken for the magnesium ribbon to disappear when it is reacted with hydrochloric acid) when the concentration of HCL increases. As the reaction continues, the concentration of the reacting substances decreases and so does the rate of reaction. The reaction is speeded up if the number of collisions is increased. The higher the concentration of HCL you use, the less time it takes for the magnesium to disappear and so the rate reaction increases. If the activation energy is high only a small amount of particles will have enough energy to react so the reaction rate would be very small, however the activation energy is very low the number of particles with that amount of energy would be so high, so start, so the reaction rate would be higher.
Apparatus
Hydrochloric acid( mole)
Water(to dilute acid)
10ml testube
magnesium(cm long)
stop clock(sensitivity 1/10s)
beaker
In order to conduct any type of experiment, you need equipment. The equipment I used was a
Measuring Cylinder
Small measuring cylinder
Flask
beakers
Pad (marked with black cross) white cross
Timer
Method
To get the amount of magnesium and the amount of hydrochloric acid to use in the situation, we have to use an excess of acid so that all of the magnesium disappears.
An equation for the reaction
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Mg(s) + HCL(aq)Mgcl(aq) + H(g)
1mole moles 1mole 1mole
So we can say that one mole of magnesium reacts with moles of hydrochloric acid. Throughout the experiment, we diluted the acid solution using water, as we did this the concentration of the acid decreased. Then 8ml of acid and ml of water solution on the magnesium, measured time taken for magnesium to disappear using stop clock. Then 7ml of acid and ml of acid, repeated as above. This way the rate of reaction(the time taken for the magnesium to disappear) was measured accurately for a fair test.
Results
The results for the time taken for magnesium to disappear when it is placed in different concentrations of acid are summarised below.
Analysis of results
From the results in the table and the graph we can see a steady increase in the rate of reaction as the concentration of the acid decreases. This complies with my prediction. The graph shows that there is an increase in the rate of reaction as the concentration increases because the graph has its largest gradient or it is steepest at this point. When the graph was made into 1/time the result should have been a straight line graph but it did not turn out this way even though concentration~1/time. This 1/time graph could be wrong because of inaccurate results so there seems to be no relationship between the concentration graph and the 1/time graph. We can see from the rate of reaction graph that when the concentration roughly doubles from (1.8 moles to moles) the rate of the reaction doubles (from 5 to 60 seconds). Also we can see that as the reaction continues the concentration of the reactants decrease and so does the rate of the reaction as we can see the decreasing gradient on the graph steadily falling and coming to a stop when the reaction is complete and the magnesium has completely disappeared.
Conclusion
I can conclude that if you double the concentration of the acid the reaction rate would also double, this is because the ions are closer together in a concentrated solution. The closer together they are, the more often the ions collide. The more often they collide, the higher the chance of a reaction between the magnesium and the hydrochloric acid. Also because there are more particles in the solution which would increase the likelihood that they would hit the magnesium so the reaction rate would increase. The graph gives us a good device to prove that if you double the concentration the rate of reaction doubles. If you increase the number of particles in the solution it is more likely that they will collide more often. In the reaction, when the magnesium hit the acid, it fizzed and produced many bubbles it was silver in colour (which is one of magnesiums physical properties silvery
white metallic element), the activation energy of a particle gets higher with heat, the particles which have to have the activation energy are those particles which are moving, in the case of magnesium and hydrochloric acid, it is the hydrochloric acid particles which have to have the activation energy because they are the ones that are moving and bombarding the magnesium particles to produce magnesium chloride. The graph for 1/time had the form of an s curve and it did have some relationship with the other graph.
Conclusion
The experiments made were very successful and we had managed to complete the experiment fully and fairly.
The fastest reaction made was with no water, 60 cm of sodium this sulphate and 10 cm acid. This reaction is very fast with a time average of 44.1 seconds. The slowest reaction made was with 50 cm of water, 10 cm of sodium thiosulphate and 10-cm acid. This reaction was very slow with a time of 4,4.5 minutes in average. But this average time has mainly been made with the one anomalous result in a certain reaction. The reaction was stopped at 61.46, but the reaction was still not finished. It seemed that the chemicals in the flask had only reacted halfway, then it just stopped reacting.
Evaluation
There are many reasons why our results for the 1/time graph did not prove the point that concentration~1/time, such as
1. When the reaction takes place bubbles of H are given off, which might stay around the magnesium, which therefore reduces the surface area of the magnesium and so the acid cannot react properly so this affects the results.
. We could have controlled factors in the investigation better (e.g. the stirring of the solution because if this is not done properly it can lead to incorrect results).
. Using larger concentrations of acid would give a bigger more accurate conclusion instead of just using 10ml test tubes use 1litre test tubes, this way graphs would be more spaced out and give an accurate form or curve.
Interpretation and Evaluation
In this experiment I found out that many different factors including; Concentration, Temperature and Surface Area affect the rate of reaction. For the experiment I found out that the higher the concentration of the acid the quicker it takes to dissolve the magnesium. I know this because the more acid molecules that is in the beaker there is more chance of a successful collision to take place. Another factor that I learned is that the rate is constantly changing during the reaction because as time goes on there are fewer acid molecules. There are fewer acid molecules because when the acid reacts the same particle cannot react again, so there are less to end with than there are to start with. As time goes on the number of acid particle decrease so there is less chance of a successful reaction to take place.
Before I started the experiment I made up a prediction. I predicted that the more concentrated the acid solution the faster the magnesium and hydrochloric acid will react. I thought that this would happen because when there are more acid particles in the test tube the more chance there is of a successful collision. I was right in my prediction but I did not predict that the rate of reaction slows down as time goes on which did happen in my experiment.
Improvements
The experiments were handled fairly but it could have been even more fair. Because The reaction was finished when the black cross on the pad dissapeared and this is only seen by the naked eye. With the whole class doing this with different eye types, there is no exact fairness in the experiment.
Fairness in this issue can be found by using devices such as a light sensor. The light sensor will pass through the flask, of were an reaction is taking place to a reciever. When the light sensor can not reach the reciever, the timing will be stopped automatically. This will bring fairness to experiments to test all similar to rate of reaction.
Variables
INDEPENDANT VARIABLE My independent variable is the concentration of the acid.
CONTROLLED VARIABLE My controlled variables are the temperature of the acid, the size of the surface area of the magnesium, the volume of the acid/water solution and the length of the magnesium strip.
DEPENDANT VARIABLE My dependant variables are the volume of the magnesium and the mass of the magnesium.
Apparatus
Stop Clock - Water -
Acid - Test Tube rack -
Test Tube - Magnesium -
Ruler - Scissors -
Beaker - Measuring Cylinder -
Safety
Safety is a very important part of this experiment as we are working with a corrosive chemical that is very dangerous. When carrying out the experiment, be sure to wear safety goggles as we are working with acid. When measuring out the different concentrations of acid, be careful not to spill it onto your hands or clothing.
Method
To begin with, set up all the apparatus in a safe position. Then make up the different concentrations of acid. To do this, add a quantity of water to the acid.
Water (cm) Acid (cm) Molarity Total (cm)
0 5 1 5
5 0 0.8 5
10 15 0.6 5
15 10 0.4 5
0 5 0. 5
Pour 5cm of each molarity of acid into a test tube. Then drop in a cm strip of magnesium. As soon as the magnesium strip drops, start the stop clock. When the magnesium is no longer visible, stop the stop clock and record the time. When the magnesium strip is dropped in a gas appears and it gives off a hissing noise. We can work out the name of this gas by solving a simple equation
Hydrogen Chloride + Magnesium = Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen
HCL + Mg = MgCL + H
Or collect this gas and test it with the POP� test to identify it as Hydrogen.
Do this with each of the different molarities and repeat this again at least two more times to ensure that an accurate result is achieved.
BOILING TUBE
ACID OF DIFFERENT
MOLARITIES
MAGNESIUM
STRIP (CM)
BOILING TUBE
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE
(THE MAGNESIUM HAS REACTED
WITH THE ACID AND HAS
DISSAPPEARED)
I will record the results in a table under the following headings
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.
I will record the results in a graph under the following headings
T
I
M
E
(S
E
C)
MOLARITY OF SOLUTION
Prediction
I predict that the more concentrated the acid solution the faster the magnesium and hydrochloric acid will react. I think that this will happen because when there are more acid particles in the test tube the more chance there is of a successful collision
1
- Acid Particle
- Water Molecule
- Magnesium Atoms
1. The particles in the liquid move around continually. Here an acid particle is about to collide with a magnesium atom.
. If the collision has enough energy, reaction takes place. Magnesium chloride and hydrogen are formed.
. If the collision does not have enough energy, no reaction occurs. The acid particle bounces away again.
Results
1st results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 5
0.8 5 6
0.6 5 11
0.4 5 516
0. 5 117
nd results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 4
0.8 5 40
0.6 5 6
0.4 5 67
0. 5 NO TIME
rd results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 6
0.8 5 8
0.6 5 61
0.4 5
0. 5 NO TIME
In some of the tests we had no time to complete them.
I also made a table for my average results;
Molarity Volume (cm) Size of
Magnesium (cm) Time Taken
(sec) Rate of Reaction
1 5 5
0.8 5 8
0.6 5 85
0.4 5 8
0. 5 117
I only recorded this result once because we had only enough time to test it once.
Mind that the sample papers like Rates of reactions between HCL and magnesium ribbon presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
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